Q.

1: Define the following terms:

 Chemical Equilibrium:
A state in a reversible chemical reaction where the
rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the
backward reaction, and the concentrations of
reactants and products remain constant over time.
 Equilibrium Constant (Kc):
A numerical value that expresses the ratio of the
concentrations of products to reactants at equilibrium,
each raised to the power of their respective
coefficients in the balanced chemical equation.
 Active Mass:
The concentration of a substance in moles per unit
volume (usually mol/dm³) used in the calculation of
the equilibrium constant.

Q.2: Write down any three macroscopic properties of

chemical equilibrium.
1. Constant Concentration: The concentration of
reactants and products remains constant at
equilibrium.
2. Dynamic Nature: Although the concentrations are
constant, the forward and backward reactions
continue to occur at the same rate.
 3. No Change in Observable Properties: Macroscopic
properties like color, pressure, or temperature remain
unchanged at equilibrium.

Q.3: Write down any three characteristics of the

equilibrium constant.
1. Depends on Temperature: The value of the
equilibrium constant changes with temperature.
2. Independent of Initial Concentrations: The
equilibrium constant remains the same regardless of
the starting concentrations of reactants and products.
3. No Units for Some Reactions: Depending on the
reaction stoichiometry, the equilibrium constant may
be dimensionless or have specific units.

Q.4: How can the direction of a reaction be predicted

if Kc is known?
 If Qc < Kc, the reaction will proceed in the forward
direction to reach equilibrium.
 If Qc > Kc, the reaction will proceed in the reverse
direction to reach equilibrium.
 If Qc = Kc, the system is already at equilibrium, and
no net change will occur.
Q.5: Write equilibrium constant expressions and units
of Kc for the following reactions:
1. 2SO₂ + O₂ ⇌ 2SO₃
Kc=[SO3]2[SO2]2[O2]K_c = \frac{[SO_3]^2}
{[SO_2]^2 [O_2]}
Units: (mol·dm⁻³)⁻¹ or mol⁻¹·dm³
2. N₂ + 3H₂ ⇌ 2NH₃
Kc=[NH3]2[N2][H2]3K_c = \frac{[NH_3]^2}{[N_2]
[H_2]^3}
Units: (mol·dm⁻³)⁻² or mol⁻²·dm⁶
3. H₂ + I₂ ⇌ 2HI
Kc=[HI]2[H2][I2]K_c = \frac{[HI]^2}{[H_2] [I_2]}
Units: mol·dm⁻³

Q.6: Predict which system at equilibrium will contain

the maximum amount of reactant or product:
1. 2CO₂ ⇌ 2CO + O₂, Kc = 3.1 × 10⁻¹⁸ mol·dm⁻³
o Since Kc is very small, the reaction favors

reactants, meaning more CO₂ will be present at

2. 2O₃ ⇌ 3O₂, Kc = 5.9 × 10⁵⁵ mol·dm⁻³

equilibrium.
 o Since Kc is extremely large, the reaction favors
products, meaning more O₂ will be present at
equilibrium.

Q.7: Write three points of differences between

reversible and irreversible reactions.
Reversible Reaction Irreversible Reaction
Occurs in both forward and Proceeds only in the
backward directions. forward direction.
Reaches a state of dynamic Does not reach
equilibrium. equilibrium.
Represented by a double arrow Represented by a single
(⇌). arrow (→).

Q.8: Numerical Problems of Kc and Qc

Since you mentioned these are from the book, kindly
specify if you'd like me to solve any particular problems,
or if you'd like explanations of formulas and methods to
solve them.

Here are the short answers for Chapter 2: Acid, Base,

and Salt:

Q.1: Define the following terms:

  pH:
A measure of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+]
[H^+] in a solution. It is calculated using the formula:
pH=−log⁡[H+]pH = -\log[H^+]
A pH below 7 indicates an acidic solution, 7 is
neutral, and above 7 is basic.
 pOH:
A measure of the hydroxide ion concentration [OH−]
[OH^-] in a solution. It is calculated using the
formula:
pOH=−log⁡[OH−]pOH = -\log[OH^-]
The relationship between pH and pOH is:
pH+pOH=14pH + pOH = 14
 Neutralization:
A chemical reaction between an acid and a base to
produce a salt and water. Example:
HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2OHCl + NaOH \rightarrow NaCl
+ H_2O

Q.2: Define conjugate acid-base pairs. Also define

conjugate acid and conjugate base.
  Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs:
A pair of compounds that differ by one proton (H⁺).
When an acid loses a proton, it forms its conjugate
base, and when a base gains a proton, it forms its
conjugate acid.
 Conjugate Acid:
Formed when a base gains a proton (H⁺).
 Conjugate Base:
Formed when an acid loses a proton (H⁺).
Identify acid, base, conjugate acid, and
conjugate base:
1. HCl + H₂O → H₃O⁺ + Cl⁻
o HCl = Acid (donates H⁺)

o H₂O = Base (accepts H⁺)

o H₃O⁺ = Conjugate Acid

o Cl⁻ = Conjugate Base

2. HCl + NH₃ → NH₄⁺ + Cl⁻

o HCl = Acid (donates H⁺)

o NH₃ = Base (accepts H⁺)

o NH₄⁺ = Conjugate Acid

o Cl⁻ = Conjugate Base

3. CH₃COOH + H₂O → H₃O⁺ + CH₃COO⁻

o CH₃COOH = Acid (donates H⁺)

o H₂O = Base (accepts H⁺)

 o H₃O⁺ = Conjugate Acid
o CH₃COO⁻ = Conjugate Base

Q.3: Explain Lewis theory of acid-base with examples

of NH₃ and AlCl₃ (or BF₃).
 Lewis Acid:
A substance that can accept a pair of electrons to
form a covalent bond.
 Lewis Base:
A substance that can donate a pair of electrons to
form a covalent bond.
Examples:
1. NH₃ and BF₃:
o NH₃ has a lone pair of electrons (Lewis base).

o BF₃ is electron-deficient (Lewis acid).

o Reaction: NH3+BF3→NH3→BF3NH₃ + BF₃ \

rightarrow NH₃ \rightarrow BF₃ Here, NH₃

donates its electron pair to BF₃.
2. NH₃ and AlCl₃:
o NH₃ acts as a Lewis base (electron donor).

o AlCl₃ acts as a Lewis acid (electron acceptor).

o They form a coordinate covalent bond when

NH₃ donates its lone pair to AlCl₃.

Q.4: Numerical Problems of pH and pOH
If you'd like me to solve specific numerical problems,
please provide the question details. Here's the formula for
reference:
 pH: pH=−log⁡[H+]pH = -\log[H^+]
 pOH: pOH=−log⁡[OH−]pOH = -\log[OH^-]
 Relationship: pH+pOH=14pH + pOH = 14

Q.5: Write down any one use of the following salts:

1. Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate (CaSO₄·2H₂O):
o Used in the manufacture of plaster of Paris and

in building materials.
2. Copper Sulphate (CuSO₄):
o Used as a fungicide in agriculture to control

fungal diseases in crops.

3. Iron Sulphate Heptahydrate (FeSO₄·7H₂O):
o Used in the treatment of iron-deficiency anemia

as an iron supplement.
4. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate (NaHCO₃):
o Commonly known as baking soda, used in

baking as a leavening agent.

 5. Barium Sulphate (BaSO₄):
o Used in medical imaging (barium meals) to

improve contrast in X-ray imaging of the

digestive system.
6. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO₄):
o Used as a disinfectant and in water purification

due to its strong oxidizing properties.

Q.1: Explain Bronsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and

Bases with Suitable Examples. Also, Give Its
Limitations.
 Definition:
The Bronsted-Lowry theory defines:
o Acid: A substance that donates a proton (H⁺).

o Base: A substance that accepts a proton (H⁺).

Examples:
1. HCl + H₂O → H₃O⁺ + Cl⁻
o HCl acts as a Bronsted-Lowry acid (donates H⁺).

o H₂O acts as a Bronsted-Lowry base (accepts H⁺).

2. NH₃ + H₂O ⇌ NH₄⁺ + OH⁻

o NH₃ acts as a base (accepts H⁺ from water).

o H₂O acts as an acid (donates H⁺ to NH₃).

Limitations of Bronsted-Lowry Theory:
1. Doesn't Explain Acid-Base Reactions Without
Protons:
It cannot explain acid-base reactions that do not
involve proton transfer (e.g., reactions involving
electron pairs).
2. Limited to Protonic Systems:
It does not account for acid-base behavior in non-
protonic solvents.
3. Cannot Explain Lewis Acids/Bases:
Fails to explain reactions where electron pair transfer
occurs without proton exchange (e.g., reactions with
BF₃).

Q.2: What Are Buffers? What Are Acidic and Basic

Buffers? How Are They Prepared?
 Definition:
A buffer solution is a solution that resists changes in
pH when small amounts of acid or base are added.
Types of Buffers:
1. Acidic Buffer:
o Composed of a weak acid and its salt with a

strong base.
 o Example: CH₃COOH (acetic acid) + CH₃COONa
(sodium acetate)
o Preparation:
Mix acetic acid with sodium acetate in water.
2. Basic Buffer:
o Composed of a weak base and its salt with a

strong acid.
o Example: NH₄OH (ammonium hydroxide) +

NH₄Cl (ammonium chloride)

o Preparation:

Mix ammonium hydroxide with ammonium

chloride in water.
How Buffers Work:
Buffers maintain pH by neutralizing added acids or
bases through the reaction of the weak acid/base with the
added H⁺ or OH⁻ ions.

Q.3: What Is Salt? Give Its Preparation with Balanced

Chemical Equations. Also, Explain Its Types with
Examples.
 Definition:
A salt is an ionic compound formed when an acid
 reacts with a base, and the hydrogen ions (H⁺) are
replaced by metal ions or other cations.
Preparation of Salts:
1. Neutralization Reaction (Acid + Base → Salt +
Water):
HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2OHCl + NaOH \rightarrow NaCl
+ H_2O
(Sodium chloride is formed)
2. Reaction of Acid with Metal:
2HCl+Zn→ZnCl2+H22HCl + Zn \rightarrow ZnCl_2 +
H_2
(Zinc chloride is formed)
3. Reaction of Acid with Metal Carbonate:
2HCl+Na2CO3→2NaCl+CO2+H2O2HCl + Na_2CO_3 \
rightarrow 2NaCl + CO_2 + H_2O
(Sodium chloride is formed)
Types of Salts:
1. Normal Salts:
Formed by complete neutralization of an acid and
 base.
Example: NaCl (Sodium chloride)
2. Acid Salts:
Formed by partial neutralization of polybasic acids.
Example: NaHSO₄ (Sodium bisulfate)
3. Basic Salts:
Formed by partial neutralization of a strong base with
a weak acid.
Example: Mg(OH)Cl (Magnesium hydroxide
chloride)
4. Double Salts:
Contain two different cations or anions.
Example: FeSO₄·(NH₄)₂SO₄·6H₂O (Mohr’s salt)
5. Complex Salts:
Contain complex ions.
Example: K₄[Fe(CN)₆] (Potassium ferrocyanide)

Q.4: Describe Arrhenius Acid-Base Theory with

Suitable Examples. Also, Write Down Its Limitations.
 Definition:
The Arrhenius theory defines:
o Acid: A substance that increases H⁺ ion

concentration in an aqueous solution.

o Base: A substance that increases OH⁻ ion

concentration in an aqueous solution.

Examples:
1. HCl in Water:
HCl→H++Cl−HCl \rightarrow H^+ + Cl^-
(HCl is an acid because it produces H⁺ ions)
2. NaOH in Water:
NaOH→Na++OH−NaOH \rightarrow Na^+ + OH^-
(NaOH is a base because it produces OH⁻ ions)
Limitations of Arrhenius Theory:
1. Restricted to Aqueous Solutions:
Cannot explain acid-base behavior in non-aqueous
solvents.
2. Cannot Explain Non-Ionic Acid-Base Reactions:
Fails to explain reactions that do not involve H⁺ or
OH⁻ ions (e.g., gas-phase reactions).
3. Doesn’t Account for Lewis Acids/Bases:
Cannot explain reactions based on electron pair
donation or acceptance.

Q.5: Prove pH + pOH = 14 OR Explain How Water

Ionization Is Related to the pH of a Solution.
Ionization of Water:
Water undergoes slight ionization:
H2O⇌H++OH−H_2O \rightleftharpoons H^+ + OH^-
The ion product of water (Kw) is:
Kw=[H+][OH−]K_w = [H^+][OH^-]
At 25°C, Kw=1×10−14K_w = 1 \times 10^{-14}.
Derivation of pH + pOH = 14:
Taking the logarithm of both sides:
log⁡(Kw)=log⁡([H+])+log⁡([OH−])\log(K_w) = \log([H^+]) + \
log([OH^-])
Substituting values:
log⁡(1×10−14)=log⁡([H+])+log⁡([OH−])\log(1 \times 10^{-
14}) = \log([H^+]) + \log([OH^-]) −14=log⁡([H+])
+log⁡([OH−])-14 = \log([H^+]) + \log([OH^-])
Multiplying both sides by -1:
14=−log⁡([H+])−log⁡([OH−])14 = -\log([H^+]) - \log([OH^-])
By definition:
pH=−log⁡([H+])andpOH=−log⁡([OH−])pH = -\log([H^+]) \
quad \text{and} \quad pOH = -\log([OH^-])
Therefore:
pH+pOH=14pH + pOH = 14
This shows the relationship between water ionization
and pH.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Q.1: Define the Following Terms:
1. Organic Chemistry:
The branch of chemistry that deals with the study of
carbon-containing compounds, especially those
found in living organisms.
2. Functional Group:
An atom or group of atoms in an organic molecule
that determines the chemical properties and
reactions of that molecule.
Example: –OH (hydroxyl group), –COOH (carboxyl
group).
3. Isomerism:
A phenomenon where compounds have the same
molecular formula but different structural
 formulas or arrangements of atoms.
Example: Butane (C₄H₁₀) and Isobutane (C₄H₁₀).
4. Catenation:
The ability of carbon atoms to form long chains or
rings by bonding with other carbon atoms.
5. Homologous Series:
A series of organic compounds with the same
functional group and a general formula, differing
by a -CH₂- unit.
Example: Alkanes: CH₄, C₂H₆, C₃H₈...
6. Alkyl Radicals:
Groups formed by removing one hydrogen atom from
an alkane. They are represented as R–.
Example: Methyl (–CH₃), Ethyl (–C₂H₅).

Q.2: Define Functional Group. Identify the Functional

Groups in the Following Compounds:
 Functional Group:
An atom or group of atoms responsible for the
characteristic chemical reactions of an organic
molecule.
Identifying Functional Groups:
1. CH₃—CHO:
o Functional Group: Aldehyde (–CHO)

o Name: Acetaldehyde
 2. CH₃—COOH:
o Functional Group: Carboxyl (–COOH)

o Name: Acetic Acid

3. CH₃—CH₂—OH:
o Functional Group: Hydroxyl (–OH)

o Name: Ethanol

4. CH₂ = CH₂:
o Functional Group: Double Bond (C=C)

o Name: Ethene (Alkene)

5. CH₃—CO—CH₃:
o Functional Group: Carbonyl (C=O) in Ketone

o Name: Acetone (Ketone)

Q.3: Write the Names and Structural Formulae (Open

and Condensed) of Five-Carbon Compounds in
Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes.
1. Alkane (C₅H₁₂ - Pentane):

 Open Structure: CH₃—CH₂—CH₂—CH₂—CH₃

 Condensed: C₅H₁₂
2. Alkene (C₅H₁₀ - Pentene):

 Open Structure: CH₂=CH—CH₂—CH₂—CH₃

 Condensed: C₅H₁₀
3. Alkyne (C₅H₈ - Pentyne):

 Open Structure: CH≡C—CH₂—CH₂—CH₃

 Condensed: C₅H₈

Q.4: Write Down Three Characteristics of Organic

Compounds.
1. Covalent Bonding:
Organic compounds primarily contain covalent
bonds.
2. Low Melting and Boiling Points:
Due to weak intermolecular forces.
3. Combustibility:
Most organic compounds are combustible,
producing CO₂ and H₂O upon burning.

Q.5: Write Down Three Uses of Organic Compounds.

1. Medicines: Used in pharmaceuticals (e.g., aspirin,
antibiotics).
2. Fuels: Such as gasoline, diesel, and natural gas.
3. Plastics and Polymers: For making packaging
materials, bottles, and synthetic fibers.
Q.6: Give Any Three Reasons Why Organic
Compounds Have High Magnitude and Diversity.
1. Catenation: Carbon’s ability to form long chains and
rings.
2. Tetravalency of Carbon: Forms four bonds, leading
to complex structures.
3. Isomerism: Ability to form structural and
stereoisomers, increasing diversity.

Q.7: Write Down the IUPAC Names of the Following:

(Please refer to your book for specific compounds.)
If you share the structures, I can provide accurate IUPAC
names.

DETAILED ANSWER QUESTIONS

Q.1: What Are Hydrocarbons? Differentiate Between
Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons.
 Hydrocarbons:
Organic compounds made up of only carbon and
hydrogen atoms.
Types of Hydrocarbons:
1. Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes):
 o Contain single bonds (C–C).
o Example: Methane (CH₄)
2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
o Contain double (C=C) or triple (C≡C) bonds.

o Alkenes: Ethene (CH₂=CH₂)

o Alkynes: Ethyne (CH≡CH)

Q.2: Give a Brief Account of the Natural Sources of

Organic Compounds.
1. Plants:
o Produce compounds like glucose, starch,

cellulose.
o Essential oils, alkaloids, etc.

2. Animals:
o Provide proteins, fats, enzymes, hormones.

3. Fossil Fuels:
o Petroleum, natural gas, coal — major sources of

hydrocarbons.
4. Microorganisms:
o Source of antibiotics (e.g., penicillin).
Q.3: Classify Organic Compounds. Also Write Down
Suitable Examples for Each.
1. Based on Structure:
 Acyclic (Open-chain) Compounds:
Example: Ethane (C₂H₆)
 Cyclic Compounds:
o Alicyclic: Cyclohexane (C₆H₁₂)

o Aromatic: Benzene (C₆H₆)

2. Based on Functional Groups:

 Hydrocarbons: Methane (CH₄)

 Alcohols: Ethanol (CH₃CH₂OH)
 Aldehydes: Formaldehyde (HCHO)
 Carboxylic Acids: Acetic acid (CH₃COOH)

Q.4: Outline the Structural Formulae for the

Following Organic Compounds:
1. Acetylene (C₂H₂):
H—C≡C—H
2. sec-Butyl Chloride (C₄H₉Cl):
CH₃—CHCl—CH₂—CH₃
3. iso-Propyl Alcohol (C₃H₇OH):
(CH₃)₂CHOH
4. ter-Butyl Alcohol (C₄H₉OH):
(CH₃)₃COH
5. Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH):
CH₃—C(=O)—OH
6. Ethyl Acetate (CH₃COOCH₂CH₃):
CH₃—C(=O)—O—CH₂CH₃
7. Formic Acid (HCOOH):
H—C(=O)—OH
8. Formaldehyde (HCHO):
H—C(=O)—H