Information Technology (IT) is the field that deals with the use of computers, software, networks, and

other digital systems to store, retrieve, process, and transmit information. It’s the backbone of modern
communication, data management, and automation across industries.

Real-World Applications:
• Managing databases in hospitals and schools
• Running websites and e-commerce platforms
• Automating business operations
• Enabling remote work and cloud computing
• Supporting government services through e-governance

What is data?

Data refers to raw facts, figures, or information that can be collected, stored, and analyzed. It’s the
foundation of decision-making, research, and digital processes.

How Data Is Used:

• In computing, data is the input that software processes to produce output.

• In science, it’s the evidence used to support hypotheses.
• In business, it drives analytics, forecasting, and strategy.
• In e-governance, it powers digital services and citizen records.

Information is processed, organized, or structured data that carries meaning and can be used to make
decisions, solve problems, or communicate knowledge.

Key Characteristics:

• Accurate
• Verifiable
• Timely
• Source must be reliable

Hierarchy of Data

• Data
• Information
• Records
• Files
• Databases
• Data warehouse

1
Data Processing Cycle is a structured sequence of steps used to convert raw data into meaningful
information. It’s the backbone of how computers and systems handle data—from collection to
actionable insights.

Main Stages of the Data Processing Cycle:

Stage Description
1. Collection Gathering raw data from various sources (e.g., surveys, sensors, databases).
2. Input Entering the collected data into a system using devices like keyboards or scanners.
3. Processing Transforming data using algorithms, calculations, or software tools.
4. Storage Saving processed data for future use, often in databases or cloud systems.
5. Output Presenting the processed data as readable information (e.g., reports, charts).
Using output to refine future data collection or processing methods.

Types of Data Processing

Type Description Common Use Cases

Data is collected over time and processed in Payroll systems, backups, report
Batch Processing
bulk. generation
Real-Time
Data is processed instantly as it's received. Online banking, traffic monitoring
Processing
Transaction Handles individual, discrete operations with
E-commerce, ATM systems
Processing consistency and reliability.
Distributed Tasks are spread across multiple computers or Big data analytics, cloud
Processing servers. computing
Uses multiple processors to execute tasks Scientific simulations, high-
Multiprocessing
simultaneously. performance computing

HISTORY OF COMPUTER

Earliest Computer • Originally calculations were computed by humans, whose job title was computers.
These human computers were typically engaged in the calculation of mathematical expressions. The
calculations of this period were specialized and expensive, requiring years of training in mathematics.

The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a person who carried out
calculations, or computations, and the word continued to be used in that sense until the middle of the
20th century.

2
Early Computing Devices

• Tally Sticks - A tally stick was an ancient memory aid device to record and document numbers,
quantities, or even messages.
• Abacus • An abacus is a mechanical device used to aid an individual in performing mathematical
calculations. It was invented in Babylonia in 2400 B.C. and in the form we are most familiar with
was first used in China in around 500 B.C. It used to perform basic arithmetic operations.
• Napier’s Bones

Invented by John Napier in 1614. Allowed the operator to multiply, divide and calculate square
and cube roots by moving the rods around and placing them in specially constructed boards.

• Slide Rule • Invented by William Oughtred in 1622.

o Based on Napier's idea about logarithms.
o Used primarily for: – multiplication – division – roots – logarithm – Trigonometry
o Not normally used for addition or subtraction.
• Pascaline

Invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642. It was its limitation to addition and subtraction. It is too
expensive.

• Stepped Reckoner

Invented by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1672. The machine that can add, subtract, multiply and
divide automatically.

• Jacquard Loom

The Jacquard Loom is a mechanical loom, invented by Joseph-Marie Jacquard in 1881. It’s an
automatic loom controlled by punched cards.

• Arithmometer

A mechanical calculator was invented by Thomas de Colmar in 1820. The first is a reliable, useful
and commercially successful calculating machine. The machine could perform the four basic
mathematical functions. The first mass-produced calculating machine.

• Difference Engine and Analytical Engine

It’s an automatic, mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions. Invented by

Charles Babbage (Father of Computer) in 1822 and 1834. It is the first mechanical computer.

First Computer Programmer

In 1840, Augusta Ada Byron suggests to Babbage that he use the binary system. She writes
programs for the Analytical Engine.

• Scheutzian Calculation Engine

3
 Invented by Per Georg Scheutz in 1843. Based on Charles Babbage's difference engine. The first
printing calculator.

• Tabulating Machine

Invented by Herman Hollerith in 1890. To assist in summarizing information and accounting.

• Harvard Mark 1

Also known as IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC). Invented by Howard H.
Aiken in 1943. The first electro-mechanical computer

• Z1 The first programmable computer.

Created by Konrad Zuse in Germany from 1936 to 1938. To program the Z1 required that the user
insert punch tape into a punch tape reader and all output was also generated through punch tape.

• Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)

It was the first electronic digital computing device. Invented by Professor John Atanasoff and
graduate student Clifford Berry at Iowa State University between 1939 and 1942.

• ENIAC • ENIAC stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer.

It was the first electronic general-purpose computer. Completed in 1946 and it was Developed by
John Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly

• UNIVAC 1

The UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer 1) was the first commercial computer. Designed by
J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. UNIVAC 1

• EDVAC

EDVAC stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer. The First Stored Program
Computer Designed by Von Neumann in 1952. It has a memory to hold both a stored program as
well as data.

• Osborne 1

The first portable computer. It was released in 1981 by the Osborne Computer Corporation.

• The First Computer Company -The first computer company was the Electronic Controls
Company. Founded in 1949 by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly.

Computer Generations

The First Generation

• Vacuum Tubes
4
 • relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by computers, to
perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time.
• Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
• The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms.
• They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a
lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.

The Second Generation

• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. One
transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes.
• Allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable.
• Still generated a great deal of heat that can damage the computer.
• Uses assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
• Relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
• These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved
from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology. Transistor

The Third Generation

• Integrated circuits were the hallmark of the third generation of computers.

• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
• Much smaller and cheaper compared to the second generation computers.
• It could carry out instructions in billionths of a second.
• Users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced
with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time
with a central program that monitored the memory.
• Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors

The Fourth Generation

• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated

circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
• As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks,
which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
• Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.

The Fifth Generation •

• Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI).

• Still in development.
5
 • The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality.
• The goal is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning
and self-organization.
• There are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.

Computer System Organization

Computer System Organization refers to how the components of a computer system are structured and
interact to perform tasks efficiently. It’s the blueprint behind how your machine processes data, executes
programs, and communicates with device

A. Hardware components are the physical parts of a computer system—everything you can
touch, see, or connect. These components work together to process data, run software, and
deliver output.

Component Function

The computer’s brain that executes instructions and handles

calculations.
Control Unit

The Control Unit (CU) is a vital part of the Central Processing Unit
(CPU) in a computer system. Think of it as the orchestra conductor—it
doesn’t perform the actual computations, but it directs and
coordinates all the other components to ensure everything runs
smoothly.

Central Key Functions of the Control Unit

Processing Unit • Instruction Fetching: Retrieves instructions from memory.
(CPU) • Decoding: Interprets what the instruction means.
• Control Signal Generation: Sends signals to other parts of the CPU
(like the ALU and registers) to carry out the instruction.
• Data Flow Management: Controls how data moves between the CPU,
memory, and I/O devices.
• Execution Coordination: Ensures instructions are executed in the
correct sequence

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is the powerhouse of the CPU—
it’s where all the actual calculations and decision-making happen. If
the Control Unit is the brain’s planner, the ALU is the executor.

6
Component Function

What the ALU Does:

• Arithmetic Operations: Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division

• Logical Operations: AND, OR, NOT, XOR, comparisons (greater than,
equal to, etc.)
• Bitwise Operations: Shifting bits left/right, masking, and other binary
manipulations
•

The main circuit board that connects all components and allows
Motherboard communication.

Read Only Memory – It stores instruction needed to boot up the

computer system.
Memory
RANDOM Access Memory -Temporary memory that stores data for
active tasks and programs.

Long-term data storage (e.g., HDD, SSD) for files, OS, and applications.
a. Flash Disc
b. HDD stands for Hard Disk Drive—a classic and widely used
non-volatile storage device in computers. It stores everything
from your operating system and software to personal files, even
Storage Devices when the power is off.
c. SSDstands for Solid-State Drive, a modern storage device that’s
faster, quieter, and more durable than traditional hard disk drives
(HDDs). Unlike HDDs, SSDs have no moving parts—they use
flash memory chips to store data, which means quicker access
and better reliability.
Convert electricity into usable power for internal components.
Power Supply AVR – Automatic Voltage Regulator
Unit (PSU) UPS – Uninterruptible power supply

Input Devices Allow users to enter data (e.g., keyboard, mouse, scanner).

Display or deliver results (e.g., monitor, printer, speakers).

Monitor – standard input device
Output Devices d. CRT
e. LED
f. LCD

7
Component Function

Printer – convert data into a printable format

g. Dot matrix
h. Ink jet
i. Plotter
j. 3d Printers

The quality of the input and output devices depends on the pixel resolution of
the device

Cooling System Includes fans or liquid cooling to prevent overheating.

Expansion Add functionality like graphics (GPU), sound, or network capabilities.

Cards

B. Software
Software is a set of instructions, programs, or data that tell a computer how to perform specific
tasks. Unlike hardware, which you can touch, software is intangible, it’s the logic and intelligence
that makes the machine useful.

Main Types of Software

Type Description Examples

Manages and controls hardware; Operating Systems

System (Windows, Linux), Device
acts as a bridge between hardware
Software Drivers, Firmware
and user.

Application Designed for end-users to perform MS Word, Excel, Photoshop,

Software specific tasks. Web Browsers

Programming Tools for developers to write, test, Compilers, Text Editors,

Software and debug code. Debuggers

Performs maintenance tasks to Antivirus, Disk Cleanup,

Utility Software Backup Tools
optimize system performance.

Software in washing
Embedded Built into hardware devices to machines, routers, smart
Software control specific functions. TVs

C. Procedure

8
 The procedure tells the system exactly what steps to follow to get a consistent result.
D. Data
E. Users

Type Description
Learning basic functions like typing or browsing is new to computers.
Comfortable with everyday tasks like email, word processing, and browsing
Non- Technical
• End-user
• Encoder
Knows shortcuts, customizations, and can troubleshoot basic issues.
Deep technical knowledge; can build systems, fix hardware, or code fluently
• Programmers
Technical users
• Computer Engineers
• Analyst