EE 422

DC & AC MACHINERY
AC Generators

Engr. Jan Phol B. Marquez

Lecturer
 AC Generator Types
AC generators, also known as alternators, are devices that convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy. They are widely used in power plants,
as well as in various industrial and commercial applications, such as backup
power systems and portable generators.

There are two types of generator (according to construction):

1. Rotating armature AC Generator
These are typically used in applications involving
small amounts of power. With larger amounts of
power, more current flow occurs through the slip
rings and brushes. It is difficult and expensive to
build slip rings and brushes to carry large amounts
of current. Therefore, most large AC generators are
rotating field generators.
 AC Generator Types
2. Rotating field AC Generator
The rotating field AC generator is by far the most
widely used generator. In this type of generator,
direct current from a separate source is passed
through windings on the rotor by means of slip
rings and brushes. This maintains a rotating
electromagnetic field of fixed polarity (similar to a
rotating bar magnet). The advantage in this type of
construction is that larger amounts of currents
can be handled because there are no sliding
contacts and the whole output circuit is
continuously insulated. Slip rings and brushes are
adequate for the DC field supply because the
current level in the field is much smaller than in
the armature circuit.
 AC Generator: ADVANTAGES OF HAVING STATIONARY ARMATURE
1.) The output current can be led directly from fixed terminals on
the stator to the load circuit without passing through the brush
contacts.

2.) It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding of high ac

voltages which may have as high a value as 30 kV or more.

3.) The sliding contacts are transferred to the low voltage, low
power dc field circuit which can, therefore easily insulated.

4.) The armature windings can be more easily braced to prevent

any deformation which could be produced by the mechanical
stresses set up as a result of short circuit current and the high
centrifugal forces brought into play.

5.) The armature winding is cooled more because the stator case
core can be made large enough and with many air passages or air
ducts for force air circulation.

6.) The armature winding is more complex than the field and can be
constructed more easily on stationary armature.
 AC Generator Types
Types of generator (according to principle of operation):

1. Synchronous Generator
✓ designed to produce electrical power with a constant frequency and voltage. The generator
operates by converting mechanical energy into electrical energy, using a rotating magnetic
field in the stator to induce a current in the armature.
✓ In a synchronous generator, the rotor rotates at the same speed as the rotating magnetic
field in the stator, hence the name synchronous.
✓ The rotor of the generator is equipped with a set of field windings that are supplied with
direct current (DC) to create a magnetic field that interacts with the magnetic field of the
stator.
✓ Synchronous generators are commonly used in power plants, where they are connected to a
power grid to supply electrical power to consumers. They are also used in backup power
systems and emergency generators, where a reliable and constant source of electrical power
is required.
 AC Generator Types
Types of generator (according to principle of operation):

2. Induction Generator
✓ also known as an asynchronous generator is a type of AC electrical generator that operates
based on the principle of induction.
✓ In an induction generator, the rotor is not equipped with any field windings, but instead
consists of a set of conducting bars or plates that are short-circuited together. When the
rotor rotates within the magnetic field of the stator, an electrical current is induced in the
rotor bars by the principle of electromagnetic induction. This current creates a magnetic
field that interacts with the magnetic field of the stator, generating electrical power.
✓ The generator is designed to operate at a speed slightly higher than the synchronous speed,
which causes the rotor to act as a motor and drive the generator. This phenomenon is
known as slip, and the difference between the synchronous speed and the actual operating
speed of the generator is called the slip speed.
✓ Induction generators are commonly used in wind turbines, where they are connected to a
power grid to supply electrical power to consumers. They are also used in hydroelectric
power plants, where the water flow drives the generator and the grid provides the
magnetizing current to the stator.
 AC Generator Types
Types of generator (according to number of phase):

1. Single Phase Generators

✓ Single-phase generator (also known as a single-phase alternator) is an alternating current
electrical generator that produces a single, continuously alternating voltage. Single-phase
generators can be used to generate power in single-phase electric power systems.
2. Three Phase Generators
✓ Three-phase generators (also known as polyphase) work by producing three separate
waves of AC power that operate in a sequence, ensuring that there is always a continuous
flow of energy and that the power level never dips as it does with single-phase generators.
✓ Most electric power is generated and distributed as three-phase rather than single-phase
power for the following reasons:
✓ The cost of transmission is less than for the same voltage and power in a single-phase
system.
✓ A three-phase generator has a 180% greater capacity than a single phase generator of
the same physical size.
✓ Single-phase voltage and power is easily available from a three-phase system by merely
tapping any two of the power leads.
 AC Generator Types
Three-Phase continuation…

A three-phase AC generator is designed to produce three-phase AC power by building more

coils in the stator around the rotor. The three coils are equally spaced 120° apart around the
inside of the stator. The armature coils are wired so that the generator has three separate output
voltages that differ in phase by 120 degrees.`

Simplified Three-Phase AC
Generator

Voltage Output of a Three-Phase

Generator
AC Generator Parts

Stator
 AC Generator Parts
➢ STATOR FRAME
In DC machines, the outer frame (or the yoke)
serves to carry the magnetic flux, but in alternator, it
is not meant for that purpose. Hence, it is useful for
hiding the armature stampings and windings in
position. Low speed large diameter alternators have
frames which because of ease of manufacture, are
cast in sections. Ventilation is maintained with help of
the holes cast in the frame itself. The provision of
radial ventilating spaces in the stampings assists in
cooling the machine.

➢ STATOR CORE
The armature core is supported by the stator frame and is built up of laminations of special
magnetic iron or steel alloy. The core is laminates to minimize loss due to eddy currents. The
laminations are stamped out in complete rings (for small machines). The laminations are
insulated from each other and have spaces between them for allowing the cooling air to pass
through. The slots for housing the armature conductor lie along the inner periphery of the
core and are stamped out at the same time when laminations are formed.
 AC Generator Parts
ROTOR TYPES:
➢ SALIENT POLE
• In salient pole type of rotor consist of large number of projected poles (salient poles)
mounted on a magnetic wheel. The projected poles are made up from laminations of steel.
The rotor winding is provided on these poles and it is supported by pole shoes.
• have large diameter and shorter axial length.
• generally used in lower speed electrical
machines, say 100 RPM to 1500 RPM.

➢ NON-SALIENT POLE
• cylindrical in shape having parallel slots on it
to place rotor windings. It is made up of solid
steel. Sometimes, they are also called as
drum rotor.
• smaller in diameter but having longer axial
length.
• used in high speed electrical machines,
usually 1500 RPM to 3000 RPM.
 AC Generator Parts
ARMATURE - This is where voltage is generated.
TYPES OF ARMATURE SLOTS
1. WIDE OPEN - Wide open type slot (also used in DC machines) has the advantage of
permitting easy installation of form wound coils and their easy removal in case of repair. But it has
a disadvantage of distributing the air gap flux into bunches or tufts that produce riffles in the wave
of generated emf.
2. SEMI – CLOSED - Semi – closed type flux is better in this respect, but do not allow the use
of form- wound coils.
3. WHOLLY CLOSED - Wholly closed type slots or tunnels do not disturb the air gap flux but (i)
they tend to increase the inductance of the windings (ii). The armature conductors have to be
threaded through, thereby increasing initial labor and cost of winding and (iii). They present a
complicated problem of end connections hence they are rarely used .
 AC Generator: Armature winding
ARMATURE WINDING FOR ALTERNATOR
The type of winding most generally used in alternators is very similar to the DC lap winding. In
DC armatures it will be recalled that the coils are connected together at the commutator; in AC
armatures they are joined together by merely connecting the proper coil ends in the correct
sequence.

Two general arrangements of coil are employed:

1. Half – coiled or single layer
2. Whole – coiled or double layer winding.

For Single Layer Winding / Half Coil:

Number of Slots = number of coil sides

For Whole Coiled Winding or Double Layer:

Number of Stator Slots = 2 x number of coil sides
 AC Generator: Armature winding
Number of Coils per Group Example
1. 36 slots, 4 poles, 3 phase alternator,
double layer winding

Coil Span (Ys)

Distance between Phases

(3 phase, positive sequence)
- 120 degrees each
- (AB – BC – CA) 2. 90 slots, 6 poles, 3 phase single layer
winding
 AC Generator: Armature winding
Pitch Factor or Chording Factor or Coil Span Factor
The ratio of the voltage generated in the fractional pitch coil to the voltage generated in the
full pitch coil.
• It may be defined as the ratio of the vector sum of the induced emf’s per coil. It is may also be
defined as the ratio of the emf’s of short pitch coil to emf’s of full – pitch coil.

Half pitch or fractional Full pitch

pitch
 Sample
3. Calculate the pitch factors for the following windings:
a.) 36 slots, four poles, span 1 to 8;
b.) 72 slots, six poles, span 1 to 10
c.) 96 slots, four pole, span 1 to 12
 AC Generator: Armature winding
DISTRIBUTION OR BREADTH OR WINDING OR SPREAD FACTOR
When several coils in group are connected in series, the total generated voltage by the group
is not equal to the voltage per coil multiply by the number of coils in the group. It is always less
than this because the coils are displaced from each other, which means that the voltage generated
in the several coils are not in phase with each other.
The factor by which the generated voltage must be multiplied to obtain the correct value is
called the distribution factor; it is designated by the symbol kd.
Distributing the winding in many slots has the effect of improving the shape of the voltage
wave. The value of kd is given by the equation;

Where; 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡
𝑛=
kd= distribution factor 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 ∗ 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
n= number of slots per pole per phase 180
0
d°= number of electrical degrees between adjacent slots 𝑑 =
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
 Sample
4. Calculate the distribution factor for a 36 slots, four pole three phase winding alternator.

5. A three phase alternator has 6 slots per pole per phase. Determine the distribution factor.
Generator Set Components
 Generator Set Components
Electric generator parts and functions include:

1. Engine
All generators have engines, no matter what their external source, be it diesel or hydrogen. It’s the
engine that supplies energy to the generator. The more powerful the engine, the more electricity a
generator can provide. The main components of a diesel engine – or more accurately, the parts of a
generator engine –also include:
1.a Fuel system: In this case, diesel is the external source, or mechanical energy. A tank will hold your
fuel, which in a large generator, permanently install, is typically a separate structure. The fuel tank for
smaller, portable units is usually held within the generator. Pipes will take the fuel to the engine, similar to
a fuel pump in a vehicle. A fuel filter will remove contaminants from reaching the engine, and a fuel
injector pushes the fuel into the combustion chamber.
1.b Cooling and exhaust systems: Generators need cooling systems to regulate the heat and prevent
overheating. Coolant fluid absorbs the heat and is then run through a heat exchanger, which sends the heat
into the air or into another coolant fluid.
How much ventilation does a generator need? Exhaust gases should be channeled away from the
engine and people, and are usually directed through pipes and vented into the external air. Follow the
manufacturer’s guidelines regarding how much clear space is needed around the generator, which will vary
by machine.
1.c Lubrication system: Generators are comprised of small, moving components. As such, they
need lubricating with engine oil to enable smooth operation while protecting them from excessive wear
and tear.
 Generator Set Components
2. Alternator
The function of alternators in diesel engines – or any engine – is where the external source, in
this case, diesel, converts into electricity. Moving and stationary parts create the magnetic field and
movement of electrons.
The alternator is where the energy conversion takes place within a generator set. The main
components of an alternator and its critical parts include:
• Armature: This is the main part of an AC generator, and where voltage is generated. It consists
of coils that carry the full load current in the generator.
• Field: Where the magnetic flux is created. In AC generators, the magnetic field changes as the
coils rotate.
• Slip Rings: These are electric connections that conduct the current from the stationary part to
the rotating part.
• Stator: The non-rotating electrical parts of a generator.
• Rotor: The rotating part of the generator. It produces a magnetic field in the generator.
Depending on the generator, the rotating part can also be the armature or the magnetic field.
 Generator Set Components
3. Voltage regulator
It’s critical that the generator regulates the voltage to produce a continual current for
practical use. This is the job of the voltage regulator, which helps control the electricity voltage
produced. If needed, it also converts the electricity from AC to DC. It’s usually located in either the
generator’s main control box or the terminal box of the alternator. On small, portable generators,
you’ll typically find it under the alternator’s rear cover.
How does a voltage regulator work on a generator? It automatically compares the voltage
from the generator terminals to a stable reference. An error signal then adjusts the field current
as needed to an exciter stator, which is part of the alternator. This, in turn, will either increase or
decrease the voltage at the main stator terminals.

4. Battery charger
Just as your car relies on a battery to start, so does a generator. The battery can be charged
by either the generator output itself or a separate charger.

5. Control panel
The generator is operated by the control panel, and covers everything from start and shut
down to engine speed to AC power frequency.
 Generator Set Components
6. Frame/housing
This is the assembly that contains the generator and holds it in one place. You have several options
for this, from waterproof housing to an open structural frame, as show here. Another function of the
frame or housing is to safely ground the generator’s electrical components.
Portable generator parts aren’t much different. These also have an engine, alternator, and fuel
tank, but also outlets to plug appliances into and a starter, which can be a push button or pull cord,
similar to a lawn mower.

➢ How much voltage does a generator produce?

It’s important to note that a generator’s power is expressed as watts or kilowatts. Watts is the
amount of power the generator can safely output in a given time, but let’s back up. Remember, electricity
is the flow of electrons through a conductor. Amperes – commonly known as amps – is a measure of
how many electrons are flowing. Voltage is simply pressure. It’s the force that moves electrons through
the conductor. Voltage plus amperes produces the power that’s measured in watts.

➢ But what determines output voltage?

The speed that the conductor moves through the fixed magnetic field, coupled with that field’s
strength. This speed is a result of the engine’s rotational speed. As the engine’s speed increases,
so does the voltage generated. Common voltages on commercial generators range from 120
to 4160 volts.
 Generator Set Components
➢ What would cause a generator not to produce power?
Usually, this points to a loss of residual magnetism. This can happen through the
generator’s lack of use. Over time the reserve of magnetism drains until it runs out. Residual
magnetism can also be lost when a generator is powering a load and you turn it off. This
causes the load to suck the last of the generator’s magnetism. Yet another cause for losing
residual magnetism is leaving the generator on for too long while failing to plug it into
anything.

To prevent loss of residual magnetism, use the generator from time to time, even if you don’t
need backup power. Be sure that you’re not using any plugged-in loads when you turn it off
and finally, keep the generator plugged into something unless you’re about to power it down.
Generator Set Sample
30000kVA Diesel
Generator

15kVA Diesel
Generator
DC vs AC Generator
 Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Alternator
Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical frequency
produced is locked in or synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the generator. A
synchronous generator's rotor consists of an electromagnet to which direct current is supplied. The
rotor's magnetic field points in whatever direction the rotor is turned. Now, the rate of rotation of the
magnetic fields in the machine is related to the stator electrical frequency by Equation:

Where: f= frequency of generated emf in Hertz

*1Hz=1cycle per sec (or cps)
N= mechanical speed of magnetic field, in rpm
(equals speed of rotor for synchronous
machines)
P= number of poles

Since the rotor turns at the same speed as the magnetic field , this equation relates the speed of
rotor rotation to the resulting electrical frequency. Electric power is generated 60 Hz, so the generator
must turn at a fixed speed depending on the number of poles on the machine. Ex. To generate 60Hz
power in a 4 pole machine, the rotor must turn at 1800 rpm.
EMF equation of an Alternator
The rms voltage per phase is given by the formula:

If Z is given, use
𝐄𝐩h = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝐤𝐩𝐤d𝐟𝚽𝐙
If N is given, use
𝐄𝐩h = 4. 44𝐤𝐩𝐤d𝐟𝚽N

Where:
𝐄𝐩h =generated emf per phase, in Volts
Z = number of conductors per phase
=2N
N = number of coils or turns per phase
P = number of poles
f = frequency in Hertz or 1 cps
𝚽 = flux per pole, in Wb
𝐤𝐩 =pitch or coil span factor
𝐤d =distribution factor
 Alternator on Load
As the load on alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also found to vary. This variation in
terminal voltage V is due to the following reasons:
1. Voltage drop due to the armature resistance Ra.
2. Voltage drop due to the armature leakage reactance XL.
3. Voltage drop due to armature reaction.

Armature Resistance
The armature resistance / phase Ra cause a voltage drop/phase of IRa which is in phase with the
armature current I. However, this voltage drop in practically negligible.

Armature Leakage Reactance

When current flows to the armature through conductors, fluxes are set up which do not cross the
air – gap, but taken different paths. Such fluxes are called leakage flux.
This leakage flux sets up an emf of self – inductance which is known as a reactance emf and
which is ahead of I by 90 degrees.
 Alternator on Load
Armature Reactance
As in DC generators, armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field flux. In the
case of alternator, the power factor of the loads has a considerable effect on the armature reaction.

Characteristic of Loads:
1. Pure Resistance
-Power factor is Unity
-It will cause terminal voltage to drop about 8 to 20% below its No Load value.
2. Inductive Load
-Power factor is Lagging
-Terminal voltage will drop 25 to 50% below the No Load value.
3. Capacitive Load
-Power factor is Leading
-Tends to rise the terminal voltage higher than No Load

When one load current flows through the armature winding that produces the armature flux that
will react to the main pole flux, this reaction can either produce drop or rise on the No Load voltage.
This voltage is called armature reaction voltage.
 Alternator on Load
Synchronous Reactance
The drop in voltage due to armature reaction may be accounted for by assuming the presence of
reactance Xa in armature winding. Thus, it represents the voltage drop due to armature reaction.
Synchronous refers to the working condition.

Equivalent Circuit diagram per phase

Where:
𝐄0 =No load emf, in Volts
E =armature reaction voltage
V = Terminal voltage (or load voltage)
Xs =Synchronous reactance
XL =armature leakage reactance
XAR =armature reactance
Ia =armature current
Ra =armature resistance
 Generated EMF per phase (electric circuit relationship)
a

𝐄𝐩 = [𝑉𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎]2 + 𝑉𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ± 𝐼𝑎𝑋𝑠 2

s

Using complex number,

𝐄𝐩 ∠ ± δ = 𝐕𝐩 ∠𝟎° + (𝐈a ∠ ± 𝜃)(𝐑𝐚 + 𝐣𝐗s)
Where,
−θ or +Ia Xs = if pf is lagging
+θ or − IaXs = if pf is leading

Other formulas to consider in three phase circuit

computation,
Star or Wye connected.
𝐏= 3 𝐄𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 = 3𝑬∅ 𝑰∅ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 𝐈𝐋 = 𝑰∅
𝑷 −1
𝐄𝐋 = 𝟑𝑬∅
𝑰𝑳 = ∠ − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒑. 𝒇
3 𝐄 𝐩. 𝐟 Delta connected.
𝐈𝐋 = 𝟑𝑰∅
𝐄𝐋 = 𝑬∅
 Short Circuit Test
The armature terminals are short circuited while a small field current is applied. Adjustments
maybe made such that Ip is approximately equal to the rated load armature current per phase.

𝐴
I𝑆𝐶 = A 𝐼𝑠𝑐 =
3

Where A is the ammeter reading during the test

 Open Circuit Test
The armature terminals are open circuited and the field current is made equal to the field
current during the short circuit test. With the armature winding circuit open, operate the alternator
at synchronous speed. Connect a dc source to the field, making provision to adjust the field current
so that, starting zero, it may be raised until the ac voltage between any pair of terminals of the
armature winding is somewhat above rated emf.

𝑉
Eoc = V 𝐸𝑜𝑐 =
3

Where:
V – voltmeter reading during the test
Eoc = open circuit voltage per phase
𝑽 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔
 DC Resistance Test On Alternators
The armature resistance R per phase is determined by using direct current and the
voltmeter-ammeter method. This is the d.c. value. The effective armature resistance (a.c.
resistance) is greater than this value due to *skin effect. It is a usual practice to take the effective
resistance 1.5 times the d.c. value (Ra ≈ 1.5Rdc).

𝑅𝑡 3𝑅𝑡
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑎 =
2 2
where;
R t = DC resistance of the alternator between any
two terminals
= ohmmeter reading during the test

*The skin effect may sometimes increase the effective resistance of armature conductors as high as 6 times its dc value.
 Sample
6. A 6-pole, 3-phase, 60-cycle alternator has 12 slots per pole and four conductors per slot. The winding
is 5/6 pitch. There are 2,500,000 maxwells entering the armature from each north pole, and this flux is
sinusoidally distributed along the air gap. The armature coils are all connected in series. The winding is
wye-connected. Determine the line emf of the alternator
Sample
Sample
Thank You!