NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL

OIL PIPELINES AND MULTI-PRODUCT PIPELINES

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 NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL
OIL PIPELINES AND MULTI-PRODUCT PIPELINES

Content
OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................ 4
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................... 6
THE FOUNDATIONS FOR PIPELINE DESIGNS ............................... 6
KEY PARAMETERS FOR PIPELINE DESIGN ...................... 6
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PIPE ............................................................ 7
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE FLUIDO ......................................................... 11
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PIPE AND THE FLUID............................................ 14
DISTANCE BETWEEN PUMPING STATIONS .............................. 16
PUMPS AND PUMP STATIONS ............................... 16
PIPELINES WITH MULTISTATIONS ................................................... 17
USE OF MAXIMUM OPERATING PRESSUREN ........................................ 17
EFFECT OF PUMPING OPERATION ON THE HYDRAULIC PROFILEO . 17
THE HYDRAULIC GRADIENT BETWEEN STATIONS ................................. 18
CHAPTER 2 ......................................................................................................... 20
DUCT CLASSIFICATION.......................................................................... 20
GAS PIPELINE.- .............................................................................................. 20
OIL PIPELINEO .20
POLYDUCT
ASPECTS TO FOLLOW FOR THE DESIGN AND SELECTION OF MATERIALS
FROM THE PIPES:............................................................................................. 21
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE:........................................................ 21
EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY CERTIFICATES. ............................................ 22
LASTRADO .................................................................................................... 22
OPENING OF THE RIGHT OF WAY............................................................. 23
TRENCH EXCAVATION......................................................................... 24
LAYING OF THE PIPE WITH OVERLAP ............................................... 25
BENT AND ALIGNED................................................................................ 25
CAMP WELDINGSO ........................................................................... 26
DIELECTRIC TEST FOR THE COATING ................................. 27
LOWERED AND COVERED FROM THE DITCH............................................................... 27

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Pipelines and Multiducts

TIES
HYDROSTATIC TEST .............................................................. 28
INTERIOR CLEANING ..................................................................................... 29
SIGNAGE ............................................................................................. 30
SPECIAL WORKSS .................................................................................... 30
CROSSING WITH BODIES OF WATER .............................................................. 30
DEVIL'S TRAPSS ................................................................................ 31
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 32

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Pipelines and Multiproduct Pipelines

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this work is to develop the different aspects

and necessary parameters that need to be known in the construction and design of
pipelines, gas pipelines and multipurpose pipelines.

After this section, you will be able to achieve the following objectives:
• Recognize the three physical characteristics of pipes that affect the design of
pipelines.
Identify the definition of the friction factor, f.
Recognize how the six physical properties of a liquid affect the design of
pipelines.
Identify the variables used to calculate the Reynolds Number, Re
Determine the necessary foundations for the construction of oil pipelines and multiproduct pipelines.

• Properly develop a design and construction of a system

transport of hydrocarbons through pipelines.

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OIL PIPELINES AND MULTI-PRODUCT PIPELINES

INTRODUCTION
The transportation of hydrocarbons represents a fundamental axis in the world
highly competitive modern; therefore the operations scheduling of
provision, refining, storage, and transportation of petroleum products
it is an extremely complex and essential task to achieve an adequate
coordination between the links in the fuel supply chain.
From raw materials, crude or varieties of oil obtained in vast
regions of the planet, up to refined fuels with their different grades of
quality, and the products of this sophisticated value chain travel thousands of
kilometers starting from its origin until reaching its final destination.

There are various means of transportation involved; but in this project we

we will focus specifically on ducts, which have characteristics
distinctive in their operation that sets them apart from other means of
conventional transport. Ships, trains, and trucks constitute units
mobiles that move from the origin to their destination, among which
products remain in static conditions. On the contrary, the ducts are
static units that connect the origin and destination where the goods are moved
products. The pipelines transport different types of crude oil from ports or
extraction centers, towards the refining units, where they are combined to
obtain the fuels that the market demands.
On the other hand, the multi-product pipelines are capable of transporting
large volumes of various types of refined products from the sources of
supply to the distribution centers, where they are stored
temporarily before being dispatched to consumer markets.
The multiproduct pipelines transport a wide range of distillates such as gasoline from
different grades, aviation fuels, gas oil, liquefied heating gases and
domestic kerosene, for the major oil companies in the world. A
a measure of the importance of ducts is the fact that nearly two thirds of
All petroleum derivatives are transported in them.

Both oil pipelines and multiproduct pipelines represent the most reliable means,
economical and safe to transport large volumes of material over
extensive distances.

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OIL PIPELINES AND MULTI-PRODUCT PIPELINES

CHAPTER 1

THE FOUNDATIONS FOR PIPELINE DESIGN

They describe how the friction caused by a moving fluid inside a
The pipeline affects the energy requirements of a pipeline. The procedure
to calculate the friction and the distance between stations involves the following steps
for the flow of a product in a specific section of a pipe:
Calculate the Reynolds Number.
Determine the type of flow (laminar, critical, or turbulent).
Calculate the head loss due to friction for a particular type of flow.
Calculate the pressure loss between the beginning and the end of the section.
Calculate the head that should be added to the liquid through a station.
pumping to maintain the pressure in the pipeline above the minimum limits.
Most pipelines are designed using spreadsheets or
computer programs that perform most of the calculations, with the help of
computer these calculations can be repeated very quickly to generate
a large number of alternative solutions that can make more efficient the
design of the pipeline system.

KEY PARAMETERS FOR PIPELINE DESIGN

The design of pipelines involves a number of progressive steps using

hydraulic calculations to determine the optimal size and characteristics of
operation in a pipeline system. To properly design a
pipeline, it is necessary to understand the conditions that affect the fluid in the
pipeline.
The following parameters must be considered when designing pipelines or
gas pipelines
Characteristics of the pipe
• Physical properties of the fluid and

The relationship between the pipe and the fluid.

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OIL PIPELINES AND MULTI-PRODUCT PIPELINES

Figure 1. Properties that affect pipeline design

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PIPE

The physical characteristics of the pipe affect the way a fluid behaves.
It will behave in a pipeline. Specifically, there are three parameters that must be
consider in the design:
Internal diameter of the pipe (D).
Length of the pipe (L).
Relative roughness of the internal surface of the pipe wall (e).

Figure 2. Pipe parameters.

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OIL PIPELINES AND POLYDUCTS

INTERNAL DIAMETER OF THE PIPE

In a pipeline, the pressure loss due to friction is related to the
internal diameter of the pipe. When the internal diameter of the pipe decreases,
the frictional loss due to depression drastically increases always and
when the smallest diameter as well as the largest is being handled
same flow. This is an important consideration, not only in design but
also in the understanding of the operational characteristics of any
pipeline.

Figure 3. Increase in pressure loss when the pipe diameter

decreases.

LENGTH OF THE PIPE

The length of a segment of a pipeline affects the total pressure drop.

length of that segment. The greater the length of a segment in a
pipeline, the greater the total pressure drop across that segment, as
is shown in Figure 4. Consequently, the pressure loss due to friction
for a given flow rate varies directly with the distance between two
stations.

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Pipelines and Polyducts

Figure 4. Increase in pressure loss when

Increase the length of the pipe.

INTERNAL ROUGHNESS OF THE PIPE

The friction factor determined experimentally through the correlation

of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe with the friction of
fluid inside the pipe. As the roughness of the internal wall of the
as the pipeline increases, the friction factor increases, for flow conditions
turbulent. Usually, friction factors are selected from graphs
calls

Moody diagrams, which relate the friction factor, f, with the two
dimensionless parameters, the Reynolds number, Re, and the relative roughness of
the internal wall of the pipe, e/D. The friction factors are usually
selected from a graph similar to that shown in Figure 5.

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OIL PIPES AND MULTI-PIPES

Figure 5. Moody Diagram

The relative roughness of the pipe's inner wall is the ratio of the
absolute roughness, e, and the internal diameter, D, of the pipe. Figure 6 illustrates the
relative roughness.

Figure 6. Relative Roughness

More specifically, the relative roughness is defined as the ratio of the

absolute roughness of the pipe wall (a measure of the average height of
the "protrusions (imperfections)" on the surface of the pipe wall) and the
internal diameter of the pipe:
Relative Roughness = ε/D
Where,

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Pipelines and multiproduct pipelines

ε = Absolute roughness of the pipe wall surface (in)

Internal diameter of the pipe (in)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE FLUID

Along with the characteristics of the pipe, the physical properties of the fluid.
Transported through the pipeline affects the design of the pipeline. There are six
properties of the liquid that must be recognized:

Viscosity
Density or specific gravity
Vapor pressure
Fluency point
Compressibility and
Temperature

VISCOSITY

Viscosity is defined as the tendency of a liquid to resist flow. This

factor is important when designing pipelines, specifically when calculating the
line size and pumping power requirements. The viscosity of the
Liquid is the most important factor in the calculation of pressure loss due to friction.

Figure 7. Effects of viscosity

Where:
ζ = Shear Stress.
µ = dynamic viscosity coefficient.
V = speed.

DENSITY OR SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Density is the mass of a substance with respect to its volume. A pump

You have to work harder (e.g., consume more energy) to produce the head.
necessary to transport a liquid that is denser than one with lesser density.
Pumping a high density liquid requires a pump with higher pressure.
download that pumps a low density liquid. The specific gravity is the
relationship between the density of a fluid and the density of water and increases in the
same form as density.

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Oil pipelines and multi-product pipelines

Vapor Pressure

The vapor pressure is the pressure above which the liquid no longer
it evaporates at a given temperature. Vapor pressure is a criterion
especially important when handling liquids that contain
volatile components. An example of a liquid with high volatility is gas
natural liquid (the volatile components are those that evaporate)
quickly). The minimum pressure in a pipeline must be sufficiently high
to keep light crude oils in their liquid state.

Figure 8. A high vapor pressure increases the minimum allowed value in the
pipe pressure

POINT OF FLUIDITY

The fluidity point is defined as the lowest temperature at which a liquid becomes
it will turn or flow when it has cooled. Although there are raw materials that can be
pumped at temperatures below their flow points, more is required
energy to do that. Thus, the fluidity point is an important parameter for
consider not only in the design but also in the operation of a liquid in the
pipeline

Figure 9. Lower temperatures increase the head required to flow

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PIPELINES AND POLYDUCTS

Compressibility

It is the degree to which the volume of the fluid changes with a change in pressure.
the pump increases the pressure in the pipeline causing the volume of the liquid
decrease or compress. The amount of compression is directly
related to the pressure and molecular composition of the liquid. When the
pressure decreases as the liquid flows down the pipe and
away from the bomb, the liquid returns to its original volume. A liquid
more comprehensible like LPG does not respond to pressure changes as quickly
as one less comprehensible than crude. Figure 10 illustrates how a liquid
more understandable as LPG slows the rate at which an increase of
pressure goes down in the pipeline.

Figure 10. LPG reduces its volume while the pressure increases a fluid
more comprehensible like the LPG will not respond to pressure changes as quickly
as a less comprehensible one like crude.

TEMPERATURE

Temperature affects the capacity of the pipeline both directly and

indirectly and can alter the state of liquids. Changes in the
temperature influences the viscosity and density of liquids in the
pipeline. These changes affect the performance of the line as well as the cost
operation. For example, when designing a pipeline for heavy crude,
It is necessary to know exactly the flow temperatures to calculate the
pipeline capacity.

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Pipelines and Multi-Pipelines

Figure 11. As the temperature increases, the viscosity of the oil decreases.
flows more easily at higher temperatures and has a lower pressure drop
by friction.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PIPE AND THE FLUID

The characteristics of the pipe and the fluid moving through it are
interdependent. The diameter of the pipe, the viscosity of the liquid and the
flow velocity combines to affect the flow. The type of flow is determined
through the Reynolds Number, using the formula:

∗
=
Where:
Re = Reynolds number
D = internal diameter of the pipe [ft]
flow velocity [ft/sec]
µ=viscosity [ft2/sec]

THE REYNOLDS NUMBER

The interdependence between the pipe diameter, the viscosity of the liquid and the
flow velocity is defined by a mathematical relationship called the number
of Reynolds,(Re).

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OIL PIPES AND POLY PIPES

This dimensionless number is a fundamental parameter that plays a role

vital and frequent in the equations of hydraulics, heat transfer and in
the design of pipelines. The Reynolds number is used to describe the type of
of fluid that shows a particular liquid flowing through a pipe of a
specific dimension. Note the relationship between the described variables
pictorially below. In Figure 12, the Reynolds number varies with the
diameter, velocity, and viscosity. The diameter is represented by D, the
flow velocity by v, and viscosity by the Greek letter n, 'nu'.

Figure 12. The Reynolds number varies with diameter, velocity, and
viscosity

The Reynolds number increases as the diameter and speed increase.

it increases, and decreases when the viscosity increases.

The equation shown in Figure 12 is valid only if the diameter is in

feet (meters), the speed is in feet (meters) per second and the viscosity is
in square feet (meters) per second. In pipelines, these units are not
commonly used. The equations used for the Reynolds number are:

2213 * Q 13920 * Q
= =
∗ ∗

Where:
Re= Reynolds number
Q = flow rate [Bls/h] or [m3/h]
D = internal diameter of the pipe [ft]
μ=viscosity [ft2/sec]

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Pipelines and Multipipes

DISTANCE BETWEEN PUMPING STATIONS

PUMPS AND PUMPING STATIONS

Typically, centrifugal pumps are used in pipelines as they are
appropriate for increasing pressure in the transport of large volumes of
liquid. The selection of an appropriate centrifugal pump for applications
specific depends on:

The performance of the system or the volumetric flow Q

The viscosity of the pumped liquid, v
The density of the pumped liquid, r and
Head requirements, H

Many pipelines are designed to transport liquids with different

characteristics and properties involving the loading of crude oil and other liquids
oil through the same pipeline. In these cases, a single pump cannot
to be suitable for the real operational needs of the pipeline and is
necessary to use a number of pumps arranged in series or in parallel or even in
series parallel combination.

While theoretical design is used for pump selection, generally

The economic factors are ultimately what determine the selection. The best
the pump is the pump that provides the most economical operation in terms of
energy used to achieve the desired performance, considering the variation in
the load of fluids that must be transported.

Figure 13. Pumps are used to maintain the Flow Rate.

The pumps cannot be selected without analyzing the entire system to

determine its operating characteristics. For example, it is important to know that
so much pressure is needed to transport the liquid through the pipeline to the
desired capacity (e.g. flow rate).

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PIPELINES AND POLYDUCTS

The pumps will be integrated into the system to maintain the desired flow rate and
allow future expansions. Since the economic aspect plays a role
important in the design and operations of the pipeline, a combination of
theoretical design and economic evaluation must be taken into account for the
different operating conditions.

Pipelines with multiple stations

With large pipelines, it is common to have more than one pumping station to
transport the liquid over a great distance and different elevations. The
pumping stations are generally located at evenly spaced intervals
as the variations in the terrain allow it. The difference in elevations between
the stations will determine more precisely the actual location of the
pumping stations as long as these height differences have a
greater impact on pump performance. The difference in elevation between the
stations can help or hinder that performance. Two should be considered.
important aspects when establishing the distance between pumping stations, the
CNPS required by the pumps and the pipeline MPO.

USE OF MAXIMUM OPERATING PRESSURE

If there are no major changes in height between the pumping stations, the
higher pressure will be the discharge from the upstream station. This pressure does not
it can be allowed to exceed the pipeline's MPO. Conversely, the pressure
it will be lower at the downstream station, where friction losses have
most of the liquid pressure has been exhausted. This pressure cannot be allowed
that it falls below the CNPS of the pumps at the station. If, for example, the
MPO is 535 psi, and the CNPS corresponds to a pressure of 35 psi, then the
total pressure loss between the station is 500 psi. If the pressure loss
It is 10 psi per mile, so it will be necessary to have a pumping station.
every 50 miles along the pipeline. Example #5 in the Appendix illustrates the
importance of the MPO in determining the appropriate number of stations
pumping.

EFFECT OF PUMPING OPERATION ON THE HYDRAULIC PROFILE

As described in the PUMP GRADIENTS module, the gradient

hydraulic pressure increases as the liquid passes through the pump. The
Figure 14 shows the effect of a pump on the typical hydraulic gradient. The
Static head increases through the pump.

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Pipelines and multiproduct pipelines

Figure 14 The effect of a pump on the hydraulic gradient.

THE HYDRAULIC GRADIENT BETWEEN STATIONS

The hydraulic gradient is the line on the total energy diagram that shows the
sum of the head height and the static head at any point in the
pipeline. The slope of the hydraulic gradient represents the rate at which the
the fluid head is lost due to friction.

Consider the simple example of a tank with a nozzle and an extension in the
base of the tank as shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15 The Hydraulic Gradient

The Hydraulic Gradient is the height of a fluid column at all points.

along the pipe. It is drawn as a line connecting the highest part of the
liquid in the tank with the end of the nozzle.

The hydraulic gradient is the graphical representation of the pressure of the line between
the tank and the end of the nozzle extension (Figure 15). The total head of the
liquid, at any moment, has three components: static head, head
of speed, and lifting head.

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Pipelines and Multiline Pipelines

Consider a series of three tanks arranged in a row as shown in Figure 16. The
the objective is to transfer the liquid stored in the first tank, A, to the second
tank B, and finally to the last tank, C.

Each tank acts as a power source (e.g. storage head).

To maintain a constant flow rate through the series of tanks it is
It is necessary to continuously add head energy (e.g. Pressure) to balance.
the energy loss due to friction in the pipeline.

As mentioned earlier, pumps are used to provide energy.

to transport the liquid through a pipeline.

Figure 16. Hydraulic gradient in a series of tanks

The hydraulic gradient for a single-liquid pipeline consisting of several

pumping stations can be graphed in liquid feet against the variation
in height (also in feet) of the pipeline.

A straight line is then drawn between the discharge head at a station and
the suction head at the next station for the entire length of the pipeline,
as shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17. Hydraulic gradients in a series of pumps

The hydraulic gradient is drawn between the discharge head of the pump and the
suction head of the next downstream station.

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Pipelines and Polyducts

CHAPTER 2

CLASSIFICATION OF DUCTS

GAS PIPELINE.

Long pipe, usually buried, used to transport gas

combustible (generally natural gas).
The transportation of natural gas through pipelines is one of the largest enterprises.
currently undertaken by the transport of the energy needed in the world
modern.

Construction: consists of a steel pipe conduit through which the gas

high pressure circulates from the place of origin. They are built underground
trenches are dug and buried at a typical depth of 1 meter. Exceptionally, they
they build on the surface. If the distance is long, there may be stations of
compression at intervals.

For security reasons, the regulations of all countries establish that to

determined intervals located valves in the pipelines through which
they can cut off the flow in case of an incident. Also, if the length of the pipeline
It is important, compression stations may be necessary at intervals.

The start of a gas pipeline can be a reservoir or a regasification plant.

generally located near a seaport to which they arrive
ships (for natural gas, they are called methane carriers) that transport natural gas
liquidized under cryogenic conditions at very low temperature (-161°C).

OIL PIPELINE

The term pipeline refers to the pipe and related facilities used for the
transport of oil, its derivatives and biobutanol over long distances. The
the exception is natural gas, which, despite being derived from petroleum, is
gas pipelines are named for their pipes because they are in a gaseous state at temperature
environment.

Construction: pipelines are the most economical way to transport

large amounts of oil on land. Although they can be built
submarine pipelines, the process is highly demanding both in technology
economically; consequently, most maritime transport is
it is done through oil tankers.

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OLEDPIPES AND POLYDUCTS

Pipelines

It is the duct for the transport of products derived from crude oil from the
charging point to a terminal that includes the facilities and equipment
necessary for such transport.
Construction: for the specific case of transporting distilled products from
oil.

ASPECTS TO FOLLOW FOR THE DESIGN AND SELECTION OF

MATERIALS OF THE DUCTS:

In any project, it is necessary for its initiation that the

specific technical characteristics and parameters of operation and safety in
particular, that the system must comply with; information that it will contain as
minimum, the following:

Description of the work

Project scope and location
Operating conditions and characteristics of the fluid to be transported
Information about the layout and formation of the right of way
Maintenance requirements
Surface equipment and installations
Instrumentation and safety devices

According to these characteristics and parameters, the bases of the

design as presented below:

Physical and chemical characteristics of the product

Characteristics of the right of way and Types of location
Specifications of selected materials and components
Pressure and temperature under normal and maximum operating conditions
(limits).
Loads in the duct during its integration, installation, operation and
maintenance
Additional thickness according to specifications and wear due to corrosion
Operation and maintenance processes
Systems for protection against internal and external corrosion
Additional design requirements (DDV, bury the duct, valves,
crossings
Standards and specifications to be used in the project.

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE:

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OIL PIPES AND MULTI-PIPES

Whoever carries out the work must deliver a quality certificate and the supervisor must
to know the construction rules and specifications as well as:

Anti-corrosive coating of the pipe in the plant, according to standards.

Weighted.
Formation of the DDV, trace and leveling, opening, expansion.
Access roads in conditions.
Materials Inspection.
Registration and control of materials.
Storage and transportation.
Excavation of the trench, according to the diameter.
Laying of the pipe, with overlap.
Cold bent and aligned.
Welding, procedure qualification.
Radiographic inspection of welds, qualification of welders and
repairs.
Atmospheric and submerged anti-corrosive protection in field joints.
Anti-corrosive coating on joints.
Dielectric test of the coating when lowering it into the trench for localization
defects.
Lowered and covered from the pipe, without damaging it.
Hydrostatic test.
Interior cleaning, with devils and air.
Inspection with geometric devil.
Refurbishment of the DDV.
Signage, in accordance with the standards.
Cathodic protection, according to procedure.
Special works, according to the project.
Directional drilling at crossings, according to project and river characteristics
to cross.

CERTIFICATES OF EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY.

The valid calibration certificates for the equipment and machinery must be held.
that requires only calibration, and will have to be issued by a
accredited certification company.

LASTRADO

In case the duct crosses rivers, swamps, lakes, etc., it must be ballasted.
achieve with the placement of concrete ballast, with a minimum thickness of 25mm.
Connections and branches: They are made using welded 'tees' and 'crosses'.

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Pipelines and multipurpose pipelines

Figure 18. Welded connections and branches

OPENING OF THE RIGHT OF WAY

The right of way must be planned and selected carefully, as this

it depends on the possibility of reducing the danger, due to future developments
industrial and urban areas or invasions of the same right of way. The person in charge of
the project will be able to select as a route the crossing of electric power lines,
channels and communication routes, as well as land can also be used
private property, reaching an agreement with the owner.

Figure 19. Route for an oil pipeline

.
The minimum width of our right of way will be as follows:

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PIPELINES AND MULTI-PRODUCT PIPELINES

DIAMETER (d) MINIMUM WIDTH OF THE RIGHT-OF-WAY (m)

mm (pg) A B C
From 50.8 to 203.2 10 3 7
From 254.0 to 457.2 13 4 9
From 508.0 to 914.4 15 5 10
Greater than 914.4 25 10 15

Table 1. Minimum width of the track according to diameter.

Total width of the right of way.

Width of the area for housing the excavation material product,
measured from the center of the trench.
C: Width of the pipe lodging area during laying, measured from
the center of the ditch.

The separation between ducts in the same trench must be at least 1 meter and in
different ditch must be 2m.

Ditch Excavation

A trench must be dug so that the duct is not exposed to the elements, the trench
where the pipe will be housed must have the indicated depth and width
in the Project according to its diameter.

Figure 20. Trench excavation

The depth at which the duct will be buried will depend on the type of terrain.
in such a way that there is a layer of soil over the pipe from 60 cm;
minimum in rocky or desert terrain, of 1.25 m; in irrigated lands
channels and 60 cm in other types; the width will be 30 cm more than the diameter
the exterior of our pipe; the mattress should be made of a soft material, if it
find in a rocky terrain, increasing the depth of the trench by 10 cm.

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OIL PIPELINES AND POLYDUCTS

PIPE LAYING WITH OVERLAP

The laying consists of arranging the pipes one on top of the other, without causing damage to them, to
along the right of way parallel to the trench and without causing collapses,
sliding about 5 or 10 cm, being careful not to cause collapses.

BENT AND ALIGNED

This stage involves shaping the pipe correctly to facilitate the

entry to the trench, this must be done carefully and with the pipe cold, in order to
prevent the tin from being 'sucked up'.

Figure 21. Tube Bender

The bends of the tubes must be made without altering the dimensions of the section.
the cross-section of the straight tube must be free of wrinkles, cracks, or others
evidence of mechanical damage. Bends must be made with machines
special bending machines suitable for the diameter of the tube; it is not allowed to
heating of the tubes to be bent.

Before aligning the sections, they must be inspected and cleaned if they are stitched.
longitudinal, overlapping its seam within 30° on each side of the vertical axis. The
required direction changes to adhere to the outline of the trench may
to be performed by bending the duct according to the minimum radii indicated in the
next table:

DIAMETER MINIMUM RADIO

mm (pg)
323.9 (12.75) and lower 18D
355.6 (14) 21D
406.4 (16) 24D
457.0 (18) 27D
Over 457.0 (18) 30D

Table 2. Minimum bending radii for piping according to diameter

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D: nominal outer diameter of the pipe.

FIELD WELDINGS

The electrodes used must be in accordance with what is described in the specification.
of welding procedure and comply with what is established. The application of the
welding should be protected from weather conditions (rain, wind,
dust, humidity, among others) that may harm it.

The alignment of pipes with a diameter of 12 pg or greater must be carried out.

through internal aligners keeping them during the pouring. In the
alignment of pipe less than 12pg and in the joints must be used
external basket-type aligners, which must be kept until applying a
50% of the funding distributed along the entire circumference of the pipe. The pipes are
they must align by alternating their longitudinal seam at 30 degrees on each side of the axis
vertical.

Figure 22. Pipe welding.

All field duct welds both in regular line and in construction work
specials and ties must be x-rayed at 100% with a radiation source
according to the thickness and with the simple wall inspection technique, in ducts
from 12" to 60" in diameter.

The double wall inspection technique should only be performed when due to the
diameter or any obstruction makes it impossible to apply the simple wall for
obtain radiographs that meet the acceptance requirements for
non-bitter service described in API 1104 or equivalent, according to the thickness
and as indicated below:

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OLEOHOUSES AND POLYPIPELINES

THICKNESS IN FONT DE
STEEL RADIATION
1 to 50 mm X-rays
19 to 80 mm Iridium 192
38 to 150 mm Cobalt 60

Table 3. Radiation source according to the thickness of the steel.

The thickness refers to the total thickness of the duct wall that is in contact with
the radiographic plate in single wall or double wall.

For pipelines transporting sour hydrocarbons, the inspection

Radiographic testing should be carried out according to the description in ASME.
For pipelines that transport non-sour hydrocarbons, the inspection
Radiographic examination should be carried out according to the description in the API STANDARD.
1104.
The acceptance criteria in visual and radiographic inspection of the
Field joints in pipes for non-sour service must be as indicated.
in the API STANDARD 1104; and the ASME Code for pipelines in service
bitter and Section VIII of the ASME Code for devil traps in
bitter and non-bitter service.
The radiographic interpretation must be performed by a level II technician.
X-ray and being qualified.
The records must be made in the corresponding formats for each
one of the field meetings held.

DIELECTRIC TEST FOR THE COATING

The dielectric detector will have to be run along the entire duct, this will be at
lift the pipe from its supports for the trench down, being careful
especially when passing through the points where it was supported, this
dielectric test must present, among other properties, resistance to
humidity, to the operating temperature and to the aggressive conditions of the soil.

Lowered and covered from the ditch

The excavation product will have to be returned to the trench, eliminating everything.
anything that can damage the coating, so that after the
settlement, the ground surface should not have depressions and protrusions in the area
from the trench or that the pile of earth on the side interferes with any eventual traffic
It's normal in the place. Care must be taken not to damage the coating.
anticorrosive during the lowering and filling of the trench.

After filling the trench, the final surface of the right-of-way must be prepared.

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OIL PIPELINES AND POLYDUCTS

by way, for the free movement of the equipment and the maintenance of the duct.

DRAWS

By design, during alignment operations it is allowed to have

disconnected sections of the duct.
These sections will need to be joined at their ends to provide continuity to the
same, operation that is known as "tie".
To join these sections and ensure continuity of the duct, the following must be followed:
established welding procedure, use the necessary equipment and carry out the
work to align the sections and thus avoid overstress.

The butt welds that are not tested hydrostatically must

be inspected with X-ray or ultrasound 100 percent.

HYDROSTATIC TEST

It is the pressure test performed on pipes and equipment to verify their

hermeticity, confirm its mechanical integrity and ensure they are in optimal condition
Operating conditions. The test pressure must be maintained at all times.
that the visual inspection of the circuit or equipment being tested lasts and document its
behavior through registration on a graph that must be maintained throughout
time. The mentioned inspection must start 15 minutes after having
reached the maximum test pressure. Prior to conducting the test
hydrostatics, those responsible for the areas of operation, maintenance and
industrial safety must determine the duration of it, in
function of the specific characteristics and conditions of the process circuit or
individual equipment to be tested.

Raw water or treated water at room temperature should be used, clean and free.
of suspended matter. Under no circumstances should the water temperature be
less than 289 K (16° C) and not greater than 323 K (50°C). When the temperature
if the environment is below 273 K (0° C), precautions must be taken due to
when the freezing point of water is reached. When river water is used or
lake, precautions must be taken to prevent microorganisms that
could contain, cause pollution or favor mechanisms of
microbial corrosion.

All the air inside the pipe, equipment, and components must be removed.
test, evicting it from the highest points of the circuit and increasing the
slowly press to avoid sudden increases.

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OIL PIPELINES AND POLYDUCTS

Figure 23. Hydrostatic test

Once the test is completed, the file must be integrated along with the documentation.
probationary, where the complete data of the equipment or system must appear
tested, certificates from both measuring devices, the manometric graphs and
at a minimum the following information:

a) Name of the service provider and authorized representative.

b) Description of the piping system, equipment, or circuit to be tested.
c) Date and time of the test
d) Pressure and duration of the test
e) Temperature and its range of variation
f) Written report of any irregularity that is manifested in the graph of
the hydrostatic test, such as interruptions or sudden variations of the
record during the test.
Signature of the project leaders including the supervisor.

INTERIOR CLEANING

The interior cleaning of the duct is carried out to displace the test water.
hydrostatics, also for periodic cleaning according to programs for
remove condensates in gas pipelines, or residues in liquid products for
increase the efficiency of transportation.

Figure 24. Cleaning pigs.

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OIL PIPELINES AND MULTI-PIPELINES

SIGNAGE

The necessary signage must be placed for the location and

identification of the facilities (informational signs), as well as for
limit activities that pose a risk to the safety of people and the
installations (restrictive signage) and those to alert the public about
on the risk conditions in the execution of construction works and
maintenance (preventive signage).

SPECIAL WORKS

The contractor is responsible for not interrupting vehicle traffic or the flow.
of rivers during the construction of special works, as well as take the
necessary measures in each case.

In addition to taking into account what is established by this standard for special works,
the possibility of lining the duct internally at the crossings should be considered,
yes, due to the conditions of the fluid to be handled, this is required.
The construction of supports and anchors in surface areas must comply with
the specified in the design.

The continuity of the construction of the duct should not be interrupted when crossing.
with small channels, streams, or narrow and shallow ravines that
allow the duct, by its own resistance, to cross the obstacle without requiring
supports, and as long as there is no danger that the pipe will be reached by the
current or debris accumulates, or that the slopes of the support banks
consist of soft material that is unable to support the weight of the duct and is
subject to landslides and erosion.

CROSSING WITH BODIES OF WATER

In cases where water currents, rivers, lagoons, and land intersect.

flooded areas and/or swamps, the laying of the pipe must be strictly in accordance with
stipulated in the respective permits, following the design guidelines and the
construction procedures provided for each particular case, with the
corresponding engineering standards. The crossing must be carried out
laying the weighted pipe under the riverbed in a manner similar to the
general layout of the duct, burying it in the ground at a minimum depth of
1.80 m from the back of the pipe, to ensure that the duct is outside of
the possible erosion of water across the entire channel. Only the
air crosses specified in the project, which must be constructed of
agreement with the respective plans.

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DEVIL TRAPS

The 'devil' trap and its components must be installed according to the project and
test at the same pressure limits as the main duct. The duct of
the venting of gaseous hydrocarbons should be released in a wide area
such that it prevents harm to third parties and the environment.

Figure 25. Devil traps

It must be verified that the floor where the devil's trap will be placed is
without height differences greater than ±5 cm, also, that before placing the trap, the
concrete foundation has already set according to practices
recommended for concrete structures and that all have been followed
construction procedures for civil works. Records must be maintained of
all tests conducted on the devil's trap.

The pipeline, the right-of-way, the safety systems and devices, the
signage and surface installations must be considered in the
preventive maintenance tasks, defined after prior evaluation of
engineering

Figure 26. Pipeline

DEFINITION OF DEVIL
The demons are devices or artifacts that are inserted into the pipes.
hydrocarbon carriers, travel along the entire length of these driven
through the product flow; for inspection, maintenance, or cleaning of the

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Pipelines and multiproduct pipelines

same pipe.

UTILITY OF THE DEVILS:

The devils are necessarily required during every stage of a
piping for different reasons, the most common are:

During the construction:

. Remove the deposits in the line

. When performing the hydrostatic test (filling or draining the line with water)
. Put the line into operation.

During the Operation:

. Interior cleaning of the pipe

. Remove condensate
. Separation of different products (batches of transported fluids)
. Application and distribution of inhibitors

For the Inspection:

. Check for any physical damage (geometry of the piping)

. Detect corrosion, laminations or cracks
. Leak detection
. Sampling
. Coverage and route of the line (under the sea)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
,

Cafaro D. (2009) Optimal Operations Programming in Systems of

Multiple Fuel Transport through Pipelines. Thesis
presented to apply for the degree of Doctor in Chemical Technology.
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF THE COAST

Díaz O. (20) Transport of Hydrocarbons by Pipelines

GUZMÁN M. (2012) DESIGN MANUAL FOR SYSTEMS

PIPES AND ATMOSPHERIC TANKS WITH FIXED ROOF.
SIMON BOLIVAR UNIVERSITY ECUADOR.

IPL TECHNOLOGY AND CONSULTING (1995) FUNDAMENTALS OF

Design of Oil Pipelines Alberta-Canada.

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