HUMAN EVOLUTION
1. Dryopithecus
Originated about 15 million years ago (mya).
Ape-like, lived in forests of Africa & Asia.
More herbivorous than carnivorous.
Quadrupedal (walked on all fours).
2. Ramapithecus
Existed around 14–15 mya.
Man-like jaw and teeth, suggesting transition.
More adapted to open grassland life than forests.
3. Australopithecus (African Ape-man)
Lived about 2 mya in East Africa.
Walked upright on two legs (bipedal).
Height: about 4 feet.
Omnivorous – ate fruits and hunted small animals.
Brain size: 500 cc.
4. Homo habilis ("Handy Man")
Lived about 2 mya.
First tool-maker (made crude stone tools).
Brain size: 650–800 cc.
Walked erect but short in height (about 4 feet).
Did not eat meat regularly, mainly scavenger.
5. Homo erectus ("Upright Man")
Origin: 1.5 mya.
Taller (about 6 feet) and fully erect posture.
Brain size: 900 cc.
First to use fire and hunt systematically.
Used stone tools more efficiently.
6. Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals)
Lived between 1,00,000 – 40,000 years ago.
Brain size: 1400 cc (larger than modern man).
Stocky, strong body adapted to cold climates.
Social life: lived in caves, wore animal hides, buried their dead.
Co-existed with early Homo sapiens for some time.
7. Homo sapiens ("Wise Man")
Appeared about 75,000–10,000 years ago.
Brain size: 1350–1600 cc.
Developed advanced tools, began agriculture, and settled in groups.
Developed language, culture, and art.
8. Homo sapiens sapiens (Modern Man)
Present-day humans.
Highly developed brain, language, culture, and technology.
Continued biological and cultural evolution.
1. Hardy–Weinberg Principle
It states that allele frequencies in a population remain constant from generation to generation if
there is no evolution (i.e., population is in genetic equilibrium).
It gives a mathematical expression of genetic stability:
(p + q)^2 = p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
Where:
p = frequency of dominant allele (A)
q = frequency of recessive allele (a)
p² = frequency of AA (homozygous dominant)
2pq = frequency of Aa (heterozygous)
q² = frequency of aa (homozygous recessive)
If actual frequencies differ from Hardy–Weinberg values, it means evolution is occurring due to factors
like:
Gene flow (migration of genes)
Genetic drift (chance fluctuations)
Mutation (new variations)
Recombination
Natural selection
2. Types of Evolution on the basis of Natural Selection
Natural selection works on variations and leads to different evolutionary patterns:
(i) Directional Selection
One extreme phenotype is favoured over the others.
The population’s mean trait value shifts in one direction.
Example: In peppered moths, darker moths were selected during industrial pollution.
(ii) Stabilizing Selection
Intermediate (average) phenotype is favoured.
Both extremes are selected against.
Variation decreases, mean value remains the same.
Example: Human birth weight (~3 kg) – too low or too high weight decreases survival.
(iii) Disruptive (Diversifying) Selection
Both extreme phenotypes are favoured, while intermediates are eliminated.
Population splits into two groups, may lead to speciation.
Example: Grass with very short or very tall height survives, medium height gets grazed.
Adaptive Radiation
Definition
Adaptive radiation is the evolution of different species from a common ancestor, in which organisms
diversify to occupy different ecological niches (different food habits, habitats, or lifestyles).
It is basically divergent evolution on a large scale.
Key Features
Happens when a population spreads into new areas or new habitats.
Different environmental conditions and natural selection pressures lead to the rise of new species
adapted to those conditions.
All new species share a common ancestor.
EVIDENCES
1. Morphological & Anatomical Evidences
Homologous Organs (→ Divergent Evolution)
Definition: Same structure, different function. Show common ancestry.
Forelimb of humans (grasping)
Forelimb of whales (swimming) 🐋
Forelimb of bats (flying) 🦇
Forelimb of cheetahs (running) 🐆
Analogous Organs (→ Convergent Evolution)
Definition: Different structure, same function. Show different ancestry but similar adaptation.
Wing of butterfly (insect) 🦋 vs. wing of bat (mammal) 🦇 → both for flying.
Eye of octopus 🐙 vs. eye of mammals 👀 → both for vision, but different origin.
Flippers of penguin 🐧 vs. flippers of dolphins 🐬 → both for swimming, but different structure.
2. Embryological Evidences
Early embryos of vertebrates (fish, bird, man) show similarities (gill slits, notochord).
Suggest common ancestry.
3. Paleontological Evidences (Fossils)
Fossils show transitional forms (e.g., Archaeopteryx = link between reptiles & birds).
Simple → complex organisms in layers of rocks.
4. Biogeographical Evidences
Distribution of organisms supports evolution.
Example: Darwin’s finches on Galápagos Islands, Australian marsupials.
5. Molecular / Biochemical Evidences
Similarity in DNA, proteins, enzymes among organisms.
Example: Similar cytochrome-c and haemoglobin in humans and chimpanzees.
Miller’s Experiment (1953)
Purpose:
To test Oparin-Haldane hypothesis that life could originate from simple inorganic molecules under
primitive earth conditions.
Experimental Setup:
Simulated primitive earth atmosphere: methane (CH₄), ammonia (NH₃), hydrogen (H₂), water vapor
(H₂O).
Continuous electric sparks → simulated lightning.
Flask with water → simulated oceans, heated to produce vapor.
Collected samples over time to check formation of organic compounds.
Observations / Results:
After a week, amino acids (glycine, alanine, etc.) and other organic molecules formed.
Showed that simple molecules could form building blocks of life under natural conditions.
Temp: 80–100°C (water vapor)
Voltage: (simulated lightning)
Gases Ratio : methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H2), in ratio [Link]
Natural Selection
Definition (Darwin)
“Natural Selection is the process by which organisms with favourable variations survive, reproduce, and
pass on their traits, while those with unfavourable traits are eliminated.”
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution (Darwinism)
Definition
Proposed by Charles Darwin (1859) in On the Origin of Species.
States that species evolve over time through natural selection, where favourable variations are
preserved and unfavourable ones are eliminated.
Key Points / Postulates of Darwinism
1. Variation
o Every population shows variation in traits (size, colour, behaviour).
o Variations arise naturally and are heritable.
2. Overproduction of Offspring
o Organisms produce more offspring than can survive due to limited resources.
3. Struggle for Existence
o There is a competition among individuals for food, shelter, and mates.
4. Survival of the Fittest (Natural Selection)
o Individuals with favourable traits survive and reproduce.
o Unfavourable traits are gradually eliminated from the population.
5. Adaptation
o Over generations, populations become better adapted to their environment.
6. Speciation
o Accumulation of favourable variations over long periods may lead to formation of new
species.
Examples (NCERT / Real Life)
Peppered moths (Biston betularia) → dark-coloured moths survived industrial pollution.
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria → resistant strains survive antibiotic use.
Darwin’s finches → beak size adapted to available food.
