Chapter 01 - Generalities

Introduction
The road or street can be defined as a structure designed and sized to ensure
the flow of traffic in good visibility, safety, and comfort for the
users and ensured a good function during the project's minimal service period.

I. History
The road was born from the repeated passage of men and animals along the same route.
In ancient Rome, the roads were made by digging trenches filled with...

➢ Crushed stones

➢ Of layers of stones bound by earth and compacted tightly

➢ A solid stone pavement forming the roadway surface

The road has undergone a figurative evolution over time. Nowadays, modern pavements
are equipped with a vast platform. Equipped with a pavement on either side, and bordered by wide
accotement.
Modern roads are equipped with two or three lanes of traffic.
They also have a non-slip coating without rippling. They are
also equipped with an enhancement through plantations, traffic is high there
speed. They have a great capacity to ensure the clearance of large cities
 ➢ The footprint: part of the land that belongs to the community and is designated for the road thus
to its dependencies.

➢ The base: surface of the land actually occupied by the road.

➢ Platform: road surface that includes the roadway and the shoulders.

➢ Roadway: the surface of the road that vehicles travel on. It is

consisting of one or more circulation routes.

➢ Shoulders: lateral areas of the PLATFORM that border externally the

The roadway. The shoulder consists of the shoulder strip and the treated band.

II. The functions of the road

The functions of a road can be summarized:

➢ On the remote transport of products: transfer of consumer goods from areas

from production to consumption areas;

➢ Collection and distribution of products: rural roads play a role in opening up isolated areas
product collections and market supplies;

➢ Human and social connections enhance human and social ties.

through cultural, social, political, and administrative exchanges which are factors of
development.

Roads also promote the mobility (free movement) of people, goods, and
services. It connects local and international markets.
 III. The classification of roads
In the classification of communication routes, there are several types of roads among which,
we can cite:

➢ National roads: These are paved roads that generally connect two
regions and which are established and maintained at the expense of the State. They are generally
indicated by kilometer markers are marked Rn or N. These markers are generally
red and white.

➢ Departmental roads: These are paved roads generally used to connect

two departments and which are subject to the financing of the departments and sometimes by
state subsidies. They are generally indicated by milestone markers
yellow white color marked with the letter D.

➢ Community roads: These are paved roads that connect to other areas and are
administered by the town halls.

➢ Highways: These are roads generally built on a vast well-prepared platform.

cleared. They are exclusively reserved for fast traffic and are accessible in
specially designed points. They do not include level crossings or intersections.
roundabout. They are generally characterized by blue background signs or a
red sign with the letter A inscribed on it. The ground markings indicate that the
Traffic is one-way.

IV. Construction of a roadway

A roadway is the set of layers of materials arranged to support traffic.
vehicles on a well-prepared surface. A pavement is a multilayered structure. For the
paved roadways, we note from bottom to top:

➢ The platform (PST)

➢ The form layer (if any)
➢ The foundation layer
Base layer or body
➢ The base layer
➢ The (optional) link layer
➢ The wearing course (asphalt)
 The platform
The platform corresponds to the area occupying the upper parts of the earthworks (PST).
It must be rigid enough to support earthmoving equipment. Its load-bearing capacity influences
largely on the thickness of the upper layers.
A good load-bearing capacity of the platform helps to prevent deformations under heavy loads.
and repeated, thus leading to premature deterioration of the roadway.
When the platform has low lift, we can resort to:

➢ The laying of a form layer;

➢ Some purges then some backfills;

➢ A substitution of materials;

➢ In-situ soil treatment with lime.

➢ The installation of an anti-contaminant material of the geotextile type.

The anti-contamination underlayer

It consists of a geotextile or more rarely a layer of sand of5 cmof thickness.
In the presence of poor quality soil or clayey soil, it avoids pollution of the
roadbed raised by earth movements under the combined effect of rolling loads and weather conditions.

3. The shapewear
The shape layer is a transitional element implemented from the base of the
earthworks according to the characteristics of the soil. It ensures a certain homogenization
in order to better distribute the loads on the supported ground.

4. The foundation layer

It is the element of the pavement structure placed in contact with the platform or the
shape layer.
Its role is to resist vertical efforts at the base layer and to ensure a good
distribution of loads on the lower layers so that the resulting pressures at the level
at the level remains within acceptable limits.
According to the nature of traffic (number of heavy vehicles, private vehicles entering the roadway),
The foundation layer is made up of natural or treated aggregates.
Its thickness can vary from20 to 60 cmdepending on the quality of the foundation soil and the type of
traffic.

5. The base layer

The base layer is the element of a structure directly subjected to the forces from the
surface layers. It also allows for the adjustment of the road slopes. Depending on the nature
of traffic, it consists of gravel (natural or treated), or crushed materials.

6. The link layer

The link layer corresponds to the lower part of the surface elements. It allows
to avoid ruts in the roadway. It must have good planimetry and possess
mechanical and geometric characteristics close to the surface layer. It allows
thus having a good grip between the wearing surface and the base layer. It is
made of bituminous concrete.

7. The wearing course

The wearing course corresponds to the surface layer of the roadway. It must present
the characteristics required to meet the constraints due to vehicle traffic.
It also has good surface quality: being perfectly smooth, offering a
satisfactory adhesion, not to be a source of noise nuisance.

1 Untreated soil, extracted directly from the quarries

2 Deformation of the chasses

 V. The types of pavements
The soft chases
A soft chasse is called a chase whose seat is made of untreated materials (GNT).
overlaid with a layer of bituminous concrete.

2. The thick bituminous chases

A thick bituminous layer is referred to as a layer whose base is composed of treated materials.
with hydrocarbon binder (bituminous gravel GB), topped with a wearing course in bituminous concrete.
 3. The semi-rigid shells
A semi-rigid chassis is called a chassis whose base is made of materials treated with binders.
hydraulic (MTLH), topped with a bituminous concrete wearing course.

4. The rigid chasses

A rigid pavement is a pavement whose base is made of material treated with hydraulic binder.
topped with a cement concrete surface layer.
 5. The mixed chases
A mixed pavement is a pavement whose foundation layer is made of treated materials.
hydraulic binder, the base layer treated with a hydrocarbon binder material and topped
of a bituminous concrete wearing course

6. The reverse chases

An inverse pavement is a pavement whose foundation layer is made of treated materials.
hydraulic binder, the base layer made of natural materials and topped with a wearing layer in
bituminous concrete
 Chapter 02 - Profiles and Calculation of
cubatures
I. Long profiles
The long profile is a graph on which all points of the natural terrain and the axis are plotted.
of the project. This is the representation of a vertical section along the axis of the linear project (roads,
tracks, pipelines). It is established first. This document is used for calculations.
documents sideways. This graphic is oriented from left to right. It includes among others:

➢ The details related to the natural terrain (TN)

➢ Distances and altitudes are given in meters to the nearest centimeter (to the nearest hundredth).

➢ A comparison plan of an altitude lower than the lowest altitude of the project or terrain.
natural. This comparison plan represents the x-axis of the graph on which are plotted
the horizontal distances from the project axis.

The scales of representation can be different on the x-axis and y-axis in order to
highlight the relief that cannot appear in a long project.

Application :
Let it be a section whose long profile (PEL) must be designed. Surveys are conducted on the natural ground.
topographic which shows on nine (9) cross profiles the following results:

Number of Profiles 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Cotes TN (m) 74.71 72,51 70,24 68,38 65,39 67,82 69,43 71,36 73,59

Project Quotes (m) 72.02 71,17 70,24 69,10 68,40 68.50 69.34 70.50 71.40

Partial distances 43.33 46.51 54,13 67,31 73,49 70.24 53.44 46.19
(m)

Work to request:

1) Design this project in A4 format

2) Identify the fill and cut areas.

 Deduce the type of profile.

II. The transverse profiles

The cross profiles are vertical cuts perpendicular to the project's axis. At the points
de changement de direction, les coupes se feront au niveau de la bissectrice. Les profils en travers
complete the profiles in length.

1. The types of profiles in cross-section:

Cross-sections (transversal sections perpendicular to the project's axis) allow for the calculation of the
following parameters:

➢ The position of the theoretical entry points into the ground for the earthworks;

➢ The project's footprint and its impact on the land;

➢ Muscle soreness (volume of excavation and backfill).

There is no different scale on the x-axis and y-axis in order to measure.

directly on the graph of lengths in all directions or surfaces. The x-axis
Each point of the natural terrain or project is referenced concerning the axis of the cross section.
(negative on the left and positive on the right), the ordinate is always the altitude of the point.
We then superimpose the type template or profile of the project (width of the chase, shoulder, false and
loss of swamp) from the axis point whose altitude was determined at the bottom of the long profile. This
allows for calculating the position of the earth entry points. There are three types of cross-section profiles: the
fill profiles, cut profiles and mixed profiles.

503.56 504,59 504,72 506,40 508,06 503.70508.91 510.65

-10.02 -6 -5 6.65 0 5 6 10

504,15 507,77 507,79 507,89 507,79 507,77 507,77 509,21

−7,45 −6 -5 0 5 6.65
6 7.23

➢ The volume of materials used in the construction of a project (road project by

example) ;

The profile in profile is represented in a front view for a person who would be moving along the axis of
project from origin to end.

Selon la quantité de surface remblayée, on distingue trois types de profils en travers :

➢ Embankment profiles: embankment profiles can be found.

➢ Excavation profiles: The project is located below the natural ground. The volume of the backfill
is then null.

➢ Mixed profiles: part of the project is backfilled and another part is excavated. This type of project
is more economical.
 2. Method of execution and representation of the representations of
plans across
[Link] method
The creation of a cross-section profile can be summarized in three steps:

➢ Determine the vertical plane that should contain the cross-section;

➢ Place stakes on the ground at a width greater than that of the project in the plan
vertical

➢ Determine the distances of the points of the crossing plane to the axis stakes as well as the altitudes.
of these points.

b. Representation method
When representing a cross section, the same scale is used to represent the
distances and altitudes. The points of the cross profile are represented on the x-axis in relation to
the axis of the project and by their altitudes in relation to a comparison plan. The latter can change
from one cross-section to the other. The number of the cross-section as well as the kilometer point )
must be noted on the graph.

Application :

During the execution of a road project, the topographic surveys were carried out in the field.
natural in front of housing the project.

The results are represented in the table below:

Profile number 2

Abscissas (m) -7.5 -5 -2 0 3.5 5.5 7

Slopes of
terrain 71,44 73,54 75,20 3,5 68,30 66.49 63.53
natural

Solution :
 III. Calculation of volumes
The calculation of cubatures is an evaluation calculation of the volumes of earth to be moved for the execution of a

project. There are two types of calculations based on the general form of the project studied:

➢ The calculation of 'standing' volumes for extensive surface projects (stadium, airport, etc.)

➢ The calculation of 'lying' volumes for linear projects (roads, sanitation, etc.)
 1. Calculation of 'laid' volumes:
For these calculations, it is necessary to know each cross-section profile of the fill and excavation surface as well as

the distances between profiles including fictitious profiles. There are two methods for calculating volumes
"lying down" for a linear project:

➢ The method of the average of areas

➢ The method of averaging entry profiles

a. The method of the average of areas:

The volume V enclosed between the profiles is a polyhedron bounded by the flat facets of the terrain
natural and the project on one hand and on the other hand by the vertical flat surfaces of the cross profiles.
One can apply to it the three levels formula by considering the profiles across.
parallels.

ℎ
=( 1
+ 2
+ 4S ) ′
6

Spet Spare the respective areas of the cross sectionsP et P; 1 2

1 2

4Spis
′ the surface of the intermediate profile to beSp et Sp located at a midway point between these profiles;
1 2

Spis
′ then given by ;

Sp1 + Sp 2
Sp′ =
2

Thus we have:

ℎ ℎ Sp1 + Sp 2
=( 1
+ 2
+ 4S ) =
′ ( 1
+ 2
+ 4( )
6 6 2
 ℎ ℎ
=( 1
+ 2
+ 2Sp1 + 2Sp 2 ) = Invalid input.( 1
+ 2
)]
6 6

1
+
2
= ×ℎ
2

Application:

The profiles below were created by a local company during the execution of a project
road route connecting two cities:

Profile 1:

Profile 2 :

Profile 3:
Profile 4:

Profile 5:

Profile 6:

Solution :

35.08 m2 53.09 m2 =0
1∶{ Profile 2 : { 3∶{
=0 48.78 m2 = 71.79 m2
46,612 2 =0
Profile 4 : { Profile 5 : {
33.45m2 =0

1→2 = 81.11 m 2→3 11.41 m 3→4 54.34 4→5 49.02 m

1
+ 2
35,08 + 53,09
= × 1→2 = × 81.11 = 3575.734 m3
1
2 2

2
+ 3 53.09 + 0
= × 2→3 = × 11.41 = 302.878 m3
2
2 2

3
+ 4 0 + 46,612
= × 3→4 = × 54.34 = 1266.448 m3
3
2 2
 4
+ 5 46,612 + 0
= × 4→5 = × 49.02 = 1142.460 m3
4
2 2

= +1 +2 + = 3575,734 + 302,878 + 1266,448 + 1142,460 = 6287,520 3

3 4

6287.520 m3

b. By the method of averaging the profile entries

The calculation of volumes using the average of the cross-sectional areas method is done by multiplying the
fill or cut surface by the average of the distances separating this profile from the two profiles
which frames (profit upstream and profit downstream).

➢ Demonstration

✓ For 2 profiles

1 + 2 1 2 1 2
= × 1→2 = ( + ) × 1→2 = × 1→2 + × 1→2
2 2 2 2 2

1→2 1→2
= 1 × + 2 ×
2 2

✓ For 3 profiles

1 + 2 2 + 3 1 2 2 3
= × 1→2 + × 2→3 = × 1→2 + × 1→2 + × 2→3 + × 2→3
2 2 2 2 2 2

1→2 1→2 2→3 2→3

= 1 × + 2 × + 2 × + 3 ×
2 2 2 2

1→2 1→2 + 2→3 2→3

= 1 × + 2 ( )+ 3 ×
2 2 2

✓ For n profiles

-1
1→2 -1→ + → +1 -1→
= 1 × +∑( ( )) + ×
2 2 2
2

Total fill volume

-1
1→2 -1→ + → +1 -1→
= × +∑( ( )) + ×
1
2 2 2
=2

Total excavation volume

-1
1→2 -1→ + → +1 -1→
= × +∑( ( )) + ×
1
2 2 2
=2
Application :

Considering the same data as the previous exercise. Determine the total volume of fill and
of excavation using the profit sharing method.

-1
1→2 -1→ + → +1 -1→
= 1 × +∑( ( )) + ×
2 2 2
=2

Total volume of fill

4
1→2 -1→ + → +1 4→5
= × +∑( ( )) + ×5
1
2 2 2
=2

1→2 1→2 + 2→3 2→3 + 3→4 3→4 + 4→5 4→5

= × + ( )+ ( )+ ( )+ ×
1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2

81.11 81,11 + 11,41 54,34 + 49,02

= 35.08 × + 53.09( ) + 46,612( ) = 6287.520 m3
2 2 2

6287.520 m3

Total excavation volume

-1
1→2 -1→ + → +1 -1→
= × +∑( ( )) + ×
1
2 2 2
=2

1→2 1→2 + 2→3 2→3 + 3→4 3→4 + 4→5 4→5

= × + ( )+ ( )+ ( )+ ×
1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2

81,11 + 11,41 11,41 + 54,34 54,34 + 49,02

35.08( ) + 72.79( ) + 33.45( ) 6378.230 m3
2 2 2

6378.230 m3
 Chapter 03 - Earthworks
Road Workers or Road Works
Introduction
Earthworks refer to all work related to the earth. It involves developing
or to adapt a site to build a structure or a roadway. The adaptation
Changing a piece of land means modifying it by moving earth.

It can be an addition (fill) or a removal. The use of soils in road fill

requires geotechnical studies on the permeable. Among which we can mention:

➢ Grain size (granulometric analysis);

➢ Its clay content (VBS test or blue limit test or Atterberg limit test)

➢ The resistance of a material to shock and wear (Los Angeles (LA), Micro Deval (MDE),
fragmentation ;

➢ Its bearing capacity according to its moisture condition (Proctor)

According to the behavior of the material, we distinguish 3 parameters:

✓ Intrinsic parameters or nature parameters

✓ The hydric state parameters

✓ The parameters of mechanical behavior.

I. Nature parameters
These are parameters that do not vary or vary little, neither over time nor during
different manipulations that the soil undergoes during its implementation. The tests constitute these
parameters include among others: granularity, the plasticity index, the methylene blue value
of the ground (VBS).

There are other parameters such as mechanical behavior parameters and the parameters
water state.
Among the mechanical behavior parameters, we can mention, among others, Los Angeles tests.
(LA), wet Micro Delval tests (MDE), Sand Friability tests (FS) ...

The Proctor test and the immediate bearing index or CBR are part of the hydric state parameters.

Normal Proctor Test

The normal Proctor test aims to determine the optimal dry density of a
material and its corresponding moisture content. The test applies to the granular fraction < 20
mm In other words: d/D=0/20 mm

D must not exceed 20 mm

Principle of the essay

The test consists of humidifying a material to less than 5 moisture content and compacting it in
a mold according to a standardized process and energy.

For each water content, we determine the dry bulk density.

Expression of results
For each compacted test tube, it is necessary to determine the water content and the mass of
dry material contained in the mold and the bulk density of the dry material. The values of the masses
volumes and corresponding water contents are shown on a graph.

Then we draw the adjusted layer on the 5 experimental points.

The maximum of the layer gives the optimum dry bulk density of the curve () and its content in
optimum Proctor water ()

Interpretation
The curve = ( allows
) to assess the compaction behavior of the material in
function of water content. Humidification is the most delicate phase of the test.
ranging from 15 kg to 50 kg according to the Dmaxof material and according to the size of the mold used (mold

Proctor or CBR mold

 Remarks:
For the standard Proctor test, the filling is done in 3 layers.
For the modified Proctor test, the filling is done in 5 layers.

The entire surface must be compacted as follows:

➢ For Proctor: 6 cycles of 4 shots and one last shot in the center, making a total of 25 shots.

➢ Mold CBR: 7 cycles of 7 adjacent blows against the wall of the mold and one blow.
at the center. Plus a cycle of 6 hits (no hit at the center) for a total of 56 hits.

2. The Bearing Indices

The bearing index of a soil sample is determined in a CBR mold compacted with energy
Proctor normal. The test is carried out on the fraction less than 20 mm.

Principle
The concise test punctured the compacting material sample by the penetration of a punch.
cylindrical at a constant speed of 1.27 mm/min. we record the values of the forces corresponding to
reinforcements of 2.5 mm and 5 mm We relate these values to that obtained to deduce the value of
the index carrying search.

CBR index ([Link]) is measured after 4 days of immersion in water, while the immediate bearing index
(I.P.I) is obtained when the puncture test is performed immediately after its creation.
the test tube

Expression of results
The bearing index or CBR is given by:
 1
× 100
13.35
CBR = max
2
× 100
{ 19.93

F1force (kN) that caused a depression of 2.5 mm

F2force (kN) that caused a sinking of 5 mm

II. Calculation of the thickness of the layers of a roadway

CBR methods
It provides, based on the CBR of the platform, the thickness of all the underlying layers.
from the formula of: PELTIER

100 + 150 √
=
CBR × 5

P: being the load for wheel in tons also called standard weight.

Application :

To open up a locality x, a local company plans to construct a roadway.

in front connected this locality to the urban center.
The geotechnical studies carried out emphasize both in the laboratory and on the materials that must constitute

the roadway, the following results were given:

➢ Platform : CBR = 5

➢ Form layer in sand: CBR = 15

➢ Foundation layer in GNT: CBR = 30

➢ Base layer in cement gravel: CBR = 85

➢ Wearing course in BB:

The studies on the traffic in this area reveal that the standard weight per wheel is 6.5.
tonnes.

Work requested:

Determine the thickness of the different layers of this chassé.

Solution :
Thickness of the layers adjacent to the platform

100 + 150P√ 100 + 150√6.5

= = 48,242 cm
1
CBR + 5 5+5

Thickness of the adjacent layers of the shape layer

100 + 150P√ 100 + 150√6.5

= = 24,121 cm
2
CBR + 5 15 + 5

Thickness of the layers adjacent to the foundation layer

100 + 150P√ 100 + 150√6.5

= = 13,784 cm
3
CBR + 5 30 + 5

Thickness of the layers adjacent to the platform

100 + 150P√ 100 + 150√6.5

= = 5,360 cm
4
CBR + 5 85 + 5

Wearing course: = = 5,360

4
cm
Base layer: = − 3
= 13,784
4
− 5,360 = 8,424
Foundation layer: = −2 = 24,121
3
− 13,784 = 10,337
Shape layer: − 1
= 48,242
2
− 24,121 = 24,121
New Peltier formula

It provides in addition to the CBR and standard weight per wheel, the thickness of the underlying layers.
depending on the annual traffic. The latter depends on the width of the roadway, the rate
of growth, the number of lanes of the roadway and the average annual daily traffic
(MJA). It expresses itself through

10
100 + 150 √× √
0
=
CBR + 5

P: standard weight per ton

N0annual reference traffic (100,000 T)
N: annual traffic in tons
( 1 + τ-)1
= 1× × 2× 365 × MJA × k ses

C1width-dependent coefficient 1.5 s i 4 m < P < 6 m

1= {
1
growth rate
n: lifespan or service life of the pavement

C2width-dependent coefficient 0.8 si 2 × 2 voces

2= {
1 signal
DJM: annual daily average (PL/day/direction)

Application 02 :
We intend to establish a roadway intended to accommodate wheels of standard weight (6.5 tons) using
a wearing layer of bituminous concrete, a base layer of lateritic cement with CBR=75,
foundation layer in laterite CBR=70, platform CBR=10.
We give:

Expected service duration: 15 years

MJA 250 PL/j/sens

Growth rate 6%

Two-lane roads with a width of 4m/lane

Work requested

1) Determine the annual traffic in tons

2) Determine the thicknesses of all layers using the CBR method.

 3) Calculate the equivalent traffic (NE) in axles knowing the average aggressiveness coefficient of the traffic

0,875

NE = N × CAM

Solution
1) The annual traffic in tons
( 1+ ) -1
= 1× × 2× 365 × MJA × sēswith 1= 1and 2 =1

( 1 + 0,06 15
) -1
N=1× × 1 × 365 × 250 × 2
0.06
= 4,247,864.504 T
The thicknesses of all layers by CBR

✓ The thickness of the underlying layer

10
100 + 150 √× √
0
=
CBR + 5

➢ The thickness of the underlying layer of the platform

100 + 150√6.5 × √ 4 247 864, 504

10
100,000
= 43,758 cm
1
10 + 5

1
43,758 cm

➢ The thickness of the layer underlying the foundation layer

100 + 150√6.5 × √ 4 247 864, 504

10
100,000
= 8,752 cm
2
70 + 5

2
8,752 cm

➢ The thickness of the layer underlying the base layer

100 + 150√6.5 × √ 4 247 864, 504

10
100,000
= 8,205 cm
3
75 + 5

3
8,205 cm

✓ Thickness of layers
➢ Foundation layer
= 1
− 2
= 43,758 − 8,752 = 35, 006
 35,006 cm

➢ Base layer
= 2
− 3
= 8,752 − 8,205 = 0,547

= 0.547 cm

➢ Wearing course
= 3
8,205 cm

8,205 cm

3) The equivalent NE traffic

= ×
NE = 4,247,864.504 × 0.875 = 3,716,881.441 issues

NE = 3,716,881.441 issues