Unit 1: Basics Of Digital Electronics
21BMC204J
DIGITAL LOGIC FOR MEDICAL
SYSTEMS
Credits: 3
Theory : 2 hrs, Lab: 2 hrs
Handled by
Dr. Deboleena S.
Assistant Professor, Department of Biomedical Engineering
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UNIT 1
BASICS OF DIGITAL
ELECTRONICS
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Unit 1: Basics Of Digital Electronics
Topics
• Number systems – representation
• Signed and unsigned numbers
• Binary codes
• Arithmetic operation of binary numbers- addition, subtraction and multiplication
• Conversion
• Boolean algebra, theorems
• Sum of product and product of sum simplification, canonical forms-min term and max term
• Simplification of Boolean expressions- Karnaugh map
• Completely and incompletely specified functions
• Implementation of Boolean expressions using universal gates.
Syllabus
C.O.1 - To present the fundamentals of digital circuits and simplification methods
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Digital Electronics
Advantage of Digital representation in electronics applications
• Digital data can be processed and transmitted more efficiently and
reliably than analog data.
• Digital form can be stored more compactly and reproduced with greater
accuracy and clarity.
• Noise (unwanted voltage
fluctuations) does not affect digital
data nearly as much as it does with
the analog signals.
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Digital Electronics
• Digital electronics involves circuits and systems in which there are
only two possible states. These states are represented by two
different voltage levels: A HIGH and a LOW.
• In digital systems such as computers, combinations of the two
states, called codes, are used to represent numbers, symbols,
alphabetic characters, and other types of information.
• The two-state number system is called binary, and its two digits
are 0 and 1. A binary digit is called a bit.
• The binary number system and digital codes are fundamental
to computers and to digital electronics in general.
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Number systems – representation
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Decimal Numbers
Unit 1: Basics Of Digital Electronics
• Digits 0 through 9, a base of 10.
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Problem: What weight does the digit 7 have in 41.3678?
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Binary Numbers
• Binary system has only two digits and is a base-two system.
• The weights in a binary number are based on powers of two.
• In general, with n bits you can count up to a number equal to 2^n - 1.
• Largest decimal number = 2^n - 1
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Binary-to-Decimal Conversion
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• Problem: Convert the fractional binary number 0.1011 to decimal.
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Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
• Repeated Division-by-2 Method
• Eg: Binary value of 12 Eg:
Problem: Convert the following decimal numbers to binary: (a) 19 (b) 45
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Find out no. of bits that will be required
Know the positional values
Split the number
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Convert 14 to binary
Find out no. of bits that will be required
Know the positional values
Split the number
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Problem: Convert the following decimal numbers to binary:
(a)19
(b)45
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Problem: Convert the following decimal numbers to binary:
(a)19 10011
(b)45 101101
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Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
• Converting Decimal Fractions to Binary - Repeated Multiplication by 2
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Hexadecimal Numbers
• The hexadecimal number system
has sixteen characters; it is used
primarily as a compact way of
displaying or writing binary
numbers because it is very easy to
convert between binary and
hexadecimal.
• The hexadecimal number system
has a base of sixteen; that is, it is
composed of 16 numeric and
alphabetic characters.
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Hexadecimal-to-Decimal Conversion
• By multiplying with its weights
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Decimal-to-Hexadecimal Conversion
• Repeated division of a decimal number by 16 will produce the equivalent hexadecimal number,
formed by the remainders of the divisions.
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Binary-to-Hexadecimal Conversion
• Simply break the binary number into 4-bit groups, starting at the right-most bit and replace each
4-bit group with the equivalent hexadecimal symbol.
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Binary-to-Hexadecimal Conversion
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Binary-to-Hexadecimal Conversion
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Hexadecimal-to-Binary Conversion
• To convert from a hexadecimal number to a binary number, reverse the process and replace each
hexadecimal symbol with the appropriate four bits.
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Hexadecimal-to-Binary Conversion
Convert the hexadecimal number 6BD3 to binary.
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Hexadecimal-to-Binary Conversion
Convert the hexadecimal number 6BD3 to binary.
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Octal Numbers
• Like the hexadecimal number system, the octal number system provides a convenient way to
express binary numbers and codes.
• The octal number system is composed of eight digits, which are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Octal-to-Decimal Conversion Decimal-to-Octal Conversion
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Octal-to-Binary Conversion
• Because each octal digit can be represented by a 3-bit binary number, it is very
easy to convert from octal to binary.
Binary-to-Octal Conversion
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Binary codes
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Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
• Binary coded decimal (BCD) is a way to express each of the decimal digits with a binary code.
There are only ten code groups in the BCD system, so it is very easy to convert between decimal
and BCD.
• Because we like to read and write in decimal, the BCD code provides an excellent interface to
binary systems. Examples of such interfaces are keypad inputs and digital readouts.
• In BCD, 4 bits represent each decimal digit.
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Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
Decimal numbers to BCD BCD to Decimal
Digital clocks, digital thermometers, digital meters, and other devices with seven-
segment displays typically use BCD code to simplify the displaying of decimal numbers.
BCD is not as efficient as straight binary for calculations, but it is particularly useful if only
limited processing is required, such as in a digital thermometer.
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Self learning tasks
• Excess-3 code
• Gray Code
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Arithmetic operation of binary numbers -
addition, subtraction and multiplication
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Binary Arithmetic: Binary Addition
In binary 1 + 1 is 10, not 2.
Eg:
Problem: Add 1111 and 1100.
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Binary Arithmetic: Binary Addition
In binary 1 + 1 is 10, not 2.
Eg:
Problem: Add 1111 and 1100.
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Binary Arithmetic: Binary Subtraction
Problem:
Subtract 1010 from 101.
Subtract 101 from 110.
Eg:
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Binary Arithmetic: Binary Subtraction
• Subtract 1010 from 101.
• Subtract 101 from 110.
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Binary Arithmetic: Binary Subtraction
• Subtract 1010 from 101.
• Subtract 101 from 110.
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Binary Arithmetic: Binary Multiplication
Eg:
Problem: Multiply 1101 * 1010.
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Binary Arithmetic: Binary Multiplication
Eg:
Problem: Multiply 1101 * 1010.
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Complements of Binary Numbers
• The 1’s complement and the 2’s complement of a binary number are important because
they permit the representation of negative numbers. The method of 2’s complement
arithmetic is commonly used in computers to handle negative numbers.
• Finding the 1’s Complement: The 1’s complement of a binary number is found by
changing all 1’s to 0’s and all 0’s to 1’s
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Complements of Binary Numbers
• Finding the 2’s Complement: The 2’s complement of a binary number is found by adding 1 to
the LSB of the 1’s complement.
Problem: Find the 2’s complement of 11000000.
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Complements of Binary Numbers
• Finding the 2’s Complement: The 2’s complement of a binary number is found by adding 1 to
the LSB of the 1’s complement.
Problem: Find the 2’s complement of 11000000.
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Signed and unsigned numbers
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Signed Numbers
• Digital systems, such as the computer, must be able to handle both positive and negative
numbers.
• A signed binary number consists of both sign and magnitude information. The sign indicates
whether a number is positive or negative, and the magnitude is the value of the number.
• There are three forms in which signed integer (whole) numbers can be represented in binary:
sign-magnitude, 1’s complement, and 2’s complement. Of these, the 2’s complement is the
most important and the sign-magnitude is the least used.
• The Sign Bit: The left-most bit in a signed binary number is the sign bit, which tells you whether
the number is positive or negative. A 0 sign bit indicates a positive number, and a 1 sign bit
indicates a negative number.
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Signed Numbers
• Sign-Magnitude Form: When a signed binary number is represented in sign-magnitude, the left-
most bit is the sign bit and the remaining bits are the magnitude bits.
• In the 1’s complement form, a negative number is the 1’s complement of the corresponding
positive number.
• In the 2’s complement form, a negative number is the 2’s complement of the corresponding
positive number.
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Determine the decimal value of this signed binary
number expressed in sign-magnitude: 10010101.
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Determine the decimal value of this signed binary
number expressed in sign-magnitude: 10010101.
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Implementation of Boolean expressions using
universal gates
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Basic Logic Functions
• Logic is the realm of human reasoning that tells you a certain statement is true if certain
conditions are true.
• Digital logic is the foundation, not only for computing but also for many other electronic devices
and control systems found in almost every part of modern life.
• A circuit that performs a specified logic function is called a logic gate.
• A logic gate is a small transistor circuit, basically a type of amplifier, which is implemented in
different forms within an integrated circuit. Each type of gate has one or more (most often two)
inputs and one output.
• The principle of operation is that the circuit operates on just two voltage levels, called logic 0 (0V)
and logic 1 (5V)
• Combination of logic gates form circuits that can perform specific tasks within larger circuits or
systems. The process of producing complex circuits using combinations of basic devices is called
Combinational Logic.
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Basic Logic Functions
• The whole of digital electronics depends on just seven types of logic gates, connected together with a
minimum of additional components.
• The lines connected to each symbol are the inputs and outputs. The inputs are on the left of each symbol
and the output is on the right.
Basic logic gates: NOT, AND, and OR
Universal gates: NAND, NOR
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Logic IC
• All the logic elements and functions that have been
discussed are generally available in integrated circuit (IC)
form.
• A monolithic integrated circuit (IC) is an electronic circuit
that is constructed entirely on a single small chip of silicon.
All the components that make up the circuit—transistors,
diodes, resistors, and capacitors—are an integral part of
that single chip.
• Fixed-function logic and programmable logic are two broad
categories of digital ICs.
• In fixed-function logic devices, the logic functions are set
by the manufacturer and cannot be altered.
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Logic ICs
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Boolean algebra, theorems
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Boolean Algebra
• Boolean algebra is the mathematics of digital logic- that will enable you to
optimize simple circuits
• Two‐valued Boolean algebra is defined on a set of two elements, B = {0, 1}
• Boolean addition (+, sum) is equivalent to the OR operation. Boolean
multiplication (., product) is equivalent to the AND operation.
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Boolean Algebra
• The basic laws of Boolean algebra—
• the commutative laws for addition and multiplication,
• the associative laws for addition and multiplication,
• and the distributive law
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Boolean Algebra
• Commutative law: The commutative law of addition for two variables is written
as
A+B=B+A
The commutative law of multiplication for two variables is
A.B = B.A
• Associative law: The associative law of addition is written as follows for three
variables:
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
The associative law of multiplication is written as follows for three variables:
A.(B.C) = (A.B).C
Realize using logic gates
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Boolean Algebra
• Distributive law. The distributive law is written for three variables as
follows:
A(B + C) = A.B + A.C
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Basic Theorems And Properties Of Boolean Algebra
• Duality: States that every Boolean expression remains valid if the
operators and identity elements are interchanged (interchange OR
and AND operators and replace 1’s by 0’s and 0’s by 1’s)
• Six theorems of Boolean algebra and four of its postulates
• The postulates are basic axioms of the algebraic structure and
need no proof. The theorems must be proven from the postulates.
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Basic Theorems And Properties Of Boolean Algebra
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Basic Theorems And Properties Of Boolean Algebra
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Basic Theorems And Properties Of Boolean Algebra
• The theorems of Boolean algebra can be proven by means of truth tables (for associative law and
DeMorgan’s theorem)
• Proof for first DeMorgan’s theorem, (x + y)’ = x’y’
• Problem: Proof for DeMorgan’s theorem, (x y)’ = x’+ y’
• The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean expressions is (1) parentheses, (2) NOT, (3)
AND, and (4) OR.
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Universal Gates
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Implementation of NOT Gate using Universal gates
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Implementation of AND Gate using Universal gates
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Implementation of OR Gate using Universal gates
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Boolean Functions
• Boolean algebra is an algebra that deals with
binary variables and logic operations.
• A Boolean function described by an algebraic
expression consists of binary variables, the
constants 0 and 1, and the logic operation
symbols.
Eg: F1 = x + y’z
• A Boolean function can be represented in a
truth table.
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Boolean Functions
• A Boolean function can be transformed from an algebraic expression into a
circuit diagram composed of logic gates connected in a particular structure.
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Boolean Functions
Consider, the Boolean function: F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’ .
Draw the logic circuit diagram.
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Boolean Functions
• Consider, the Boolean function: F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’ . Draw the logic circuit diagram.
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Boolean Analysis of Logic Circuits
• To derive the Boolean expression for a given combinational logic circuit,
begin at the left-most inputs and work toward the final output, writing the
expression for each gate.
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Logic Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
• A logic expression can be reduced to its simplest form or changed to a more convenient form to
implement the expression most efficiently using Boolean algebra. The approach taken in this
section is to use the basic laws, rules, and theorems of Boolean algebra to manipulate and
simplify an expression.
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Logic Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
• Consider, the Boolean function: F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’. Simplify it.
• Simplification of the function by applying some of the identities of Boolean algebra:
F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’ = x’z(y’ + y) + xy’ = x’z + xy’
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Complement of a Function
• A simpler procedure for deriving the complement of a function is to take the dual of the function
and complement each literal.
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Sum of product and product of sum simplification
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Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions
• All Boolean expressions, regardless of their form, can be
converted into either of two standard forms: the sum-of-
products form or the product-of-sums form.
• Standardization makes the evaluation, simplification, and
implementation of Boolean expressions much more
systematic and easier.
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Sum-of-Products (SOP)
• The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form: When two or more product
terms are summed by Boolean addition, the resulting expression is
a sum-of-products (SOP).
• Any logic expression can be changed into SOP form by applying
Boolean algebra techniques.
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Standard SOP expression
• A standard SOP expression is one in which all the variables in the domain
appear in each product term in the expression. For example,
ABCD + A’BCD + ABC’D is a standard SOP expression.
• Converting Product Terms to Standard SOP:
• Step 1: Multiply each nonstandard product term by a term made up of the
sum of a missing variable and its complement.
• Step 2: Repeat Step 1 until all resulting product terms contain all variables
in the domain in either complemented or uncomplemented form.
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Standard SOP expression
• Eg:
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Binary Representation of a Standard Product Term
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Converting SOP Expressions to Truth Table Format
Can you determine Standard Expressions from a Truth Table?
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Product-of-Sums (POS) Form
• When two or more sum terms are multiplied, the resulting expression is a product-of-sums
(POS). Eg:
• Standard POS Form: A standard POS expression is one in which all the variables in the domain
appear in each sum term in the expression.
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Converting a Sum Term to Standard POS
• Step 1: Add to each nonstandard product term a term made up of the product of the missing
variable and its complement. This results in two sum terms.
• Step 2: Apply : A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)
• Step 3: Repeat Step 1 until all resulting sum terms contain all variables in the domain in either
complemented or uncomplemented form.
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Binary Representation of a Standard Sum Term
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Converting POS Expressions to Truth Table Format
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Converting Standard SOP to Standard POS
• To convert from standard SOP to standard POS, the following steps are
taken:
Step 1: Evaluate each product term in the SOP expression. That is,
determine the binary numbers that represent the product terms.
Step 2: Determine all of the binary numbers not included in the evaluation
in Step 1.
Step 3: Write the equivalent sum term for each binary number from Step 2
and express in POS form.
• Using a similar procedure, you can go from POS to SOP.
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Converting Standard SOP to Standard POS
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Canonical forms-min term and max term
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Canonical forms
• AND terms is called a minterm, or a standard product.
• n variables can be combined to form 2n minterms.
• In a similar fashion, n variables forming an OR term, with
each variable being primed or unprimed, provide 2n
possible combinations, called maxterms, or standard
sums.
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Canonical forms
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Canonical forms
• A Boolean function can be expressed algebraically from a given truth table by forming a
minterm for each combination of the variables that produces a 1 in the function and then taking
the OR of all those terms.
Eg:
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Canonical forms
• Any Boolean function can be expressed as a product of maxterms (with “product” meaning the
ANDing of terms).
Eg:
Boolean functions expressed as a
sum of minterms or product of
maxterms are said to be in
canonical form.
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Canonical forms
Function expressed as a product of maxterms is
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Simplification of Boolean expressions-
Karnaugh map
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The Karnaugh Map
• Simple and straightforward procedure for minimizing Boolean
functions - Karnaugh map or K-map
• The simplified expressions produced by the map are always in one
of the two standard forms: sum of products or product of sums.
• It will be assumed that the simplest algebraic expression is an
algebraic expression with a minimum number of terms and with
the smallest possible number of literals in each term.
• This expression produces a circuit diagram with a minimum
number of gates and the minimum number of inputs to each gate.
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K-map
• 2 variable – 4 minterms - 2x2 squares
• 3 variable – 8 minterms - 2x4 squares
• 4 variable – 16 minterms - 4x4 squares
2 variable K-Map
The characteristic of this
sequence is that only one bit
changes in value from one
adjacent column to the next
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K-map 3 variable
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K-map 4 variable
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Mapping a Standard SOP Expression
Step 1: Determine the binary value of each product term in the standard SOP expression.
Step 2: As each product term is evaluated, place a 1 on the Karnaugh map in the cell having the
same value as the product term.
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Mapping a Nonstandard SOP Expression
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Karnaugh Map Simplification of SOP Expressions
Grouping the 1s
You can group 1s on the Karnaugh map according to the following rules by enclosing those
adjacent cells containing 1s. The goal is to maximize the size of the groups and to minimize the
number of groups.
1. A group must contain either 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 cells, which are all powers of two. In the case of a 3-
variable map, 23 = 8 cells is the maximum group.
2. Each cell in a group must be adjacent to one or more cells in that same group, but all cells in the
group do not have to be adjacent to each other.
3. Always include the largest possible number of 1s in a group in accordance with rule 1.
4. Each 1 on the map must be included in at least one group. The 1s already in a group can be
included in another group as long as the overlapping groups include noncommon 1s.
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Karnaugh Map Simplification
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Karnaugh Map Simplification of SOP Expressions
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Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from the Map
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K-map simplification examples
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K-map
Simplify the Boolean function: F(x,y,z) = (2,3,4,5)
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K-map
Simplify the Boolean function: F(x,y,z) = (0,2,4,5,6)
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K-map
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K-map
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K-map - POS
• Simplify the POS:
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Completely and incompletely specified
functions
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Don’t-care Conditions
• The logical sum of the minterms associated with a Boolean function specifies the
conditions under which the function is equal to 1.
• The function is equal to 0 for maxterms.
• Functions that have unspecified outputs for some input combinations are called
incompletely specified functions. It is customary to call the unspecified minterms of a
function don’t-care conditions. These don’t-care conditions can be used on a map to
provide further simplification of the Boolean expression.
• To distinguish the don’t-care condition from 1’s and 0’s, an X is used. Thus, an X inside a
square in the map indicates that we don’t care whether the value of 0 or 1 is assigned to F
for the particular minterm.
• When simplifying the function, we can choose to include each don’t-care minterm with
either the 1’s or the 0’s, depending on which combination gives the simplest expression.
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Don’t-care Conditions
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