SITE ANALYSIS & PLANNING

MODULE -1 SITE SURVEYING

MODULE 1
Site Surveying

Introduction: Importance and principles of Surveying

Chain surveying, Compass surveying, Theodolite surveying, Plane table surveying

Levelling: levelling instruments- temporary and permanent adjustment of dumpy and tilting level- Height of
instrument method, Rise and Fall method

Introduction to modern surveying equipment’s:

UAV drone, Total Station, GPS, Distomat, Digital Levels and Auto-levels, Electromagnetic distance measurement
(EDM), Principle of EDM, Total Station- Parts of a Total Station, Accessories- Advantages and Applications, Field
Procedure for total station survey, Errors in Total Station Survey

Exercise 1: Computation of height, distance and area using Total Station

Exercise 2: Determination of elevation of points on ground by differential levelling

SURVEYING
Surveying & Levelling
● Surveying is the method of determining the
relative position of points on the surface of earth
by measurement of distances , direction and
elevation
● Levelling is the branch of surveying dealing with
determination of relative heights of points on the
surface of earth in a vertical plane.
Surveying is the method of determining the relative position of points on the
surface of earth by measurement of distances direction and elevation

•Levelling is the branch of surveying the object of which is to find the elevation
of a points with respect to a given or assumed datum

• Levelling deals with measurement in vertical plane

• Object of survey is to prepare a plan or map so that it represent the area on a

horizontal plane.
Objectives of Surveying
The main objectives of surveying are as summarised below:
● To determine the relative position of any objects or points on the earth.
● To determine the distance and angles between various objects.
● To prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a horizontal plane.

Principles of Surveying
Two basic principles of surveying are:
● Always work from whole to the part, and
● To locate a new station by at least two measurements ( Linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.
General Principles of Surveying

1. Working from the whole to the part

● First a number of fairly widely separated control points are established

with high precision
● Next, the wide gaps between these control points are filled in with a
number of minor control points at much closer intervals
● Helps to prevent accumulation of errors
2. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference
Importance of Surveying
1. It helps to prepare topographical maps which show natural and man made features

● Topographic survey is used to identify and

map contours of the ground and existing
features on the surface of the earth. Eg.
trees, buildings, manholes, retaining walls,
utility poles etc.
● Before any kind of construction activity is
started, its important to have a topo survey
done in the area so an accurate record of the
land’s existing conditions exists.
● Topographic maps are used to show
elevations and grading for architects,
engineers, and building contractors.
Importance of Surveying
2. It helps to prepare cadastral maps showing the boundaries of the properties, servitudes and other
land rights

● A cadastral map is a map which

provides detailed information
about property within a specific
area.
● These maps do not just shows the
boundaries of lot lines, they
provide measurements on each lot.
● The map also provides people with
information about property rights.
Importance of Surveying
● A cadastral survey plan is
basically a property
boundary survey.

● They are primarily carried

out for legal purposes so
as to accurately establish
land ownership
boundaries and usage.
Importance of Surveying
3. It helps to prepare an engineering map which shows the details of engineering works such as
roads, railways, reservoirs etc.

● An engineering map is a map

showing information for planning an
engineering project or development
and for estimating its cost.
● It is a reference for engineers and
contractors who may be involved
with engineering projects.
● It can provide information about
utilities, public works installations,
and natural phenomena of concern.
Importance of Surveying
4. It helps to prepare a contour map to determine the steepness or gentleness of slopes

A contour map is a map illustrated

with contour lines, for example a
topographic map, which shows
valleys and hills, and the
steepness or gentleness of slopes.
They are extremely useful for
various engineering works.

Civil engineers study the contours

and find out the nature of various
areas to identify suitable sites for
their projects.
Importance of Surveying
5. It helps to control surveys to establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.

● A control survey is a survey which is

performed to achieve higher than normal
accuracies.
● Horizontal and vertical control is
established to create a framework around
which other surveys can be adjusted.
● A control point is a point on the ground or
any permanent structure whose horizontal
and vertical location/position is known.
● Control points are used as a starting point
of all types of surveys. Additional control
points or working points are fixed on site if
required ensuring they are accurate and
also tie in to the national grid system.
Importance of Surveying
6. It helps with construction surveys, surveys which are required for establishment of
points, lines, grades and for staking out engineering work.
Surveyors are the first people on any
construction site, measuring and
mapping the land.
These primary measurements are then
used by architects to understand and
make the most of the unique landscape
when designing and engineers to plan
structures accurately and safely,
ensuring buildings not only fit with the
landscape but are able to be
constructed.
Primary divisions of surveying:

1. Plane Surveying
2. Geodetic Surveying

● Plane surveying does not take into account the curvature of the earth’s surface, and the surface of the earth is treated as
a plane surface
● All the triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangles

● Geodetic surveying is the type of surveying in which the spherical shape of earth is taken into account
● All the lines lying in the surface are curved lines and triangles are spherical triangles .It involves spherical geometry
● Used for works of larger magnitude and higher degree of precision
 CLASSIFICATION OF LAND SURVEY
Based on the nature of field of survey :
[Link] surveying

● Topographical survey - It is meant for plotting natural features like rivers, lakes, forests and hills as well as man made features
like roads, railways, towns, villages and canals.
● Cadastral survey -It is for marking the boundaries of municipalities, villages, taluks, districts, states etc. The survey made to
mark properties of individuals also come under this category.
● City surveying -The survey made in connection with the construction of streets, water supply ,bridges … fall under this
category.

2. Marine or Hydrographic survey

● deals with bodies of water for the purpose of navigation , water supply , harbour works , or for determining mean sea level
● includes measurement of discharge of river , observing fluctuations of ocean tide, finding depth of water at various points in
water bodies like sea, river and lakes (sounding).

3. Astronomical survey

● Observations made to heavenly bodies like sun, stars etc., to locate absolute positions of points on the earth and for the
purpose of calculating local time
Classification Based on Object of Survey

● Engineering Survey: The objective of this type of survey is to collect data for
designing projects like roads, railways, irrigation,reservoirs.

● Military Survey: This survey is meant for determining points of strategic importance

● Mines Survey: This is used for exploring mineral wealth.

● Geological Survey: This survey is for finding different strata in the earth’s crust.

● Archeological Survey: This survey is for unearthing relics of antiquity.

Mine survey
Classification Based on Instruments Used
● Chain survey
● Compass survey
● Plane table survey
● Theodolite survey
● Tacheometric survey
● Total station survey Plane table survey
● Photographic and Aerial survey

Theodolite survey Photographic and aerial survey

Operations in surveying consists of

Field work involves

• Collection of field data by making necessary measurements,
Recording of observed data in a systematic manner.

Office Work involves

• Processing, analysing and calculation of observed data;
• Preparation of necessary data (for making plan or map of the
area);
• Making of a plan or map of the area;
 CHAIN SURVEYING COMPASS SURVEYING

THEODOLITE SURVEYING PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

CHAIN SURVEYING
Chain Surveying

Chain surveying is an old method of surveying that involves measuring distances and
angles between points on the ground with a chain or tape measure, often using
trigonometry to calculate the distance between two points in space.
Procedure in Chain Surveying
○ Chain Surveying consists of measuring the lengths of a series of straight lines with tape/chain and
then locating the details on the ground relative to these lines.
○ The details are located by measuring two other lines, known as ties or by measuring offsets at right
angles to the main survey line.
○ When a larger area is to be surveyed using ties & offset methods, a network of triangles covering
the complete area is made. The details are noted with respect to the sides of these triangles using
ties & offset methods.
When the area to be surveyed is large, it is recommended to subdivide
the whole area into different fragments. Those are picturised below:

Main Station: Main station is a point in the chain survey

where two sides of a triangle meet. These basically
command the boundaries of the survey. Here, A,B, C, D and E
are the main stations. (refer to fig.2)

Tie Station: It is a station on the main survey line joining two

main stations. Tie stations are helpful in the inner detailings
of the survey area. Tie station is also known as a subsidiary
station. Here, a,b,c and d are the tie stations. (refer to fig.2)

Main Survey Line: The chain line joining two main stations is
called the main survey line. Here, AB, BC, CD, DE, EA and AD
are the main survey lines.(refer to fig.2)
Tie Line: A chain line joining two tie stations is called a tie line.
T1T2 in the picture is the tie line.

Base Line: It is the longest main survey line on fairly level

ground and passes through the centre of the area. Baseline in
surveying is the most important line of the survey area, as all
the other lines are drawn with reference to this line. Here BD is
the baseline.

Check Line: Check line is drawn to check the accuracy of the

survey. It is also called a proof line. It should be noted that the
check line is not used to locate points in Chain Surveying.

AS2 and CS1 are the check lines.

Offset: It is the lateral distance of a point from the survey line. It

can be perpendicular or oblique.
Instruments used in Chain Surveying

1)Chains
2) Tapes
3) Arrows
4) Ranging Rods and Offset Rod
5) Pegs
6) Plumb- bob
CHAINS
● Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m

● Chain formed by straight links of galvanized mild steel wire bent into rings at the end
and joined to each other by 3 small circular or oval rings

● The ends of chain are provided with brass handles

● The length of each link is measured as the distance between the centres of two
consecutive middle rings

● Length of chain is measured from outside of one handle to outside of other handle
• Tallies, which are metallic tags of different patterns, are provided at suitably
specified points in the chain to facilitate quick and easy reading

• Tallies are fixed at every 1m, 5m , 10m length

Tapes

● Tapes can be used for more accurate measurements of lengths. They are lighter and easier to
handle
● Types of Tapes
Cloth or linen tape - Since these are liable to shrink when wet and alter in length due to twisting or
stretching, these are rarely used for accurate measurements.
Metallic tape.
Steel tape.
Invar tape - Invar tapes of alloy of Nickel and steel can be used for higher accuracy as their coefficient of
thermal expansion is very low
Arrows
● Arrows are made of steel wire of diameter 4mm.
● One end of the arrow is bent into a ring of diameter 50mm and the other end is
pointed.
● Its overall length is 400mm.
● An arrow is inserted into the ground after every chain measured on the ground
Wooden Pegs

● Used to mark the position of stations or terminal points of survey lines .

● These are made of stout timber generally 2.5 to 3 cm square or circular size and 15
cm long

● These are tapered at one end so that they can be driven in the ground with a
hammer.
Ranging Rods and Offset Rod

● Ranging rods are 2 to 3 m in length.

● They are shod at bottom with a heavy iron point

● Painted with alternate bands of black and white or red and

white colours with length of each band being 20 cm.

● Used for ranging some intermediate points on the survey line.

● They are circular in cross section of 3 cm dia , made of timber

Plumb-Bob

● While chaining along sloping ground

,plumb bob is used to transfer points to
the ground.
 Ranging out survey lines
● If length of survey line exceeds the length of chain , some intermediate
points will have to established in line with two terminal points before
chaining is started

● The process of establishing intermediate point on a survey line between

two end points is known as ranging”

● Two methods

1. direct ranging
2. indirect ranging
Direct ranging
● Done when two ends of survey lines are intervisible

Ranging by eye :
● Ranging by line ranger

● Line ranger consists of two right angled isosceles prisms, whose

diagonals are silvered to reflect the incident rays.

A P B
2. Indirect or Reciprocal Ranging:

● Indirect ranging is used when the end

stations are not intervisible due to high
intervening ground or if the ends are
too long.

● Fix two points M1 and N1 near to the

chainline such that from M1 both N1 and
B are visible and from N1 both M1 and A
are visible

● Person at M1 directs person at N1 to

move to a new position N2 in line with
M1B

● Person at N2 then directs person at M1

to move to a new position M2 in line
with N2A
Chaining

● Unfolding the chain

● Stretching the chain

Leader - chainman holding forward handle
Follower - chainman at zero end of chain
small jerks are given to align the chain along
desired direction

● Folding the chain

 Chain surveying (triangulation )
● Chain surveying is the simplest method of surveying in which only linear
measurements are made in the field.
● It is suitable for survey of smaller areas on open ground
● The principle of chain surveying is to provide a framework consisting of a number
of connected triangles, as the triangle is the only simple figure that can be plotted
from the lengths of its side measured in the field.
● The area to be surveyed is divided into a number of triangles and the sides of the
triangle are measured in the field.
● To get good results in plotting, the framework should consist of triangles which are
as nearly equilateral as possible.
● Preferably all the sides of a triangle should be nearly equal having each angle
between 60 ( not less than 30 – ill conditioned triangle )
● Main Stations: survey stations at the beginning or end
of survey line

● Main survey line lines - The line joining the main survey
stations . The longest of the main survey line is called
base line

● Subsidiary or the tie stations: Subsidiary or the tie

stations are the point selected on the main survey lines,
where it is necessary to locate the interior detail such as
fences, hedges, building etc.

● Tie or subsidiary lines: A tie line is a line which joins tie

stations on the main survey lines. It helps to checking the
accuracy of surveying and to locate the interior details
such as paths, building etc.

● Check Line: - A check line is measured to check the

accuracy of the framework

● A check line also termed as a proof line is a line joining

the apex of a triangle to any point on opposite side or by
joining two points on any two sides of a triangle.
 Offsets

● Offset is the lateral distance of an object or ground feature measured from a

survey line.

● Perpendicular offset

● Oblique offset
Field book
•Oblong book 20 cm X 12 cm

•Single line field book

•Double line field book

 Field work
● Reconnaissance

● Marking and fixing survey stations

● Running survey lines

Instruments for setting out right angles :

1. Cross staff - consist of a frame or box with two pairs of vertical silts and mounted on a
pole for fixing in the ground

Open cross staff -

● At D, one line of sight passes through ranging rods at the end of survey lines
● Move the cross staff along AB such that other line of sight passes through point C
French cross staff –

● Consist of a hollow octagonal box

● Slits are cut at the middle of each face, line between centre of slits
make an angle of 45 degree with each other
● So it is possible to set out angles at 45 or 90 degree
2. Optical square
Plotting a chain survey
 Errors in chaining
● Erroneous length of chain or tape
● Bad ranging
● Careless holding and marking
● Bad straightening
● Non horizontality
● Sag in chain
● Variation in temperature
● Variation in pull
● Personal mistakes - displacement of arrows
- miscounting of chain length
- misreading
- erroneous booking
COMPASS SURVEYING
Compass surveying is an important branch of surveying which is usually adopted in determining
the position of an object both by angular and linear measurements. Here angular measurements
are taken using a compass and linear measurements are determined using chain or tape.

Following are the compass types used for surveying.

1. Prismatic compass
2. Surveyor’s compass
3. Level compass
Compass surveying is a significant part of surveying that is frequently used to locate an item
using both angular and linear measurements. In this case, a compass is used to measure
angles, while a chain or tape is used to measure lengths.

Some priorities for compass surveying are as follows-

○ If a huge area needs to be surveyed, such as the river's course line or the coastal
regions.
○ Chain surveying becomes impractical when there are too many details and
impediments in the area to allow for triangulation.
○ If the surveyor is working within a strict time frame to complete the extensive area.

But there are also some limitations to compass surveying. It is not recommended for the
areas that avoid public attention and have the presence of iron ore deposits, magnetic
substances like metallic or steel structures, electric cables conveying current, etc.
Principle of Compass Surveying
○ Compass surveying relies on a technique called Traversing, which uses a network
of interconnected lines.
○ The distances between the lines are measured using a chain or tape, and the
magnetic bearings of the lines are measured using a surveyor compass. The
creation of a network of triangles is not necessary for this survey.
○ By deriving offsets from the primary survey lines, interior details are identified.
Subsidiary lines may occasionally be used to locate these facts.
○ Traversing can be done by various methods like compass traverse, plane table
traverse, stadia traverse, theodolite traverse, etc.
Compass Surveying Instruments
The various instruments in Compass Surveying are:

○ Prismatic compass
○ Tape
○ Ranging rods
○ Tripod
○ Arrows
○ Plumb Bob
Types of Compass in Surveying

Prismatic Compass

● The prismatic compass is a magnetic compass in which there is a prism

for taking observations.
● It consists of a circular box about 100 mm in diameter.
● The magnetic needle used in a prismatic compass is broad in shape.
● The prismatic compass is used in the calculation of whole circle bearings
of the lines.
● Sighting of the object and reading the bearing are done simultaneously in
the case of a prismatic compass.
Types of Compass in Surveying

Parts of a prismatic compass are as follows:

○ Cylinder shaped metal box

○ Pivot
○ Magnetic needle
○ Prism
○ Graduation circle
○ Object vane
○ Eye vane
○ Eye silt
○ Eye hole
○ Sunglasses
○ Spring break
○ Reflector mirror
○ Focussing stud
○ Lifting pin
○ Lifting lever
Prismatic compass bearing
Types of Compass in Surveying

Surveyor Compass

● A surveyor compass is an instrument used for the measurement of horizontal

angles and the bearing of a line of sight.
● The Surveyor compass is commonly referred to as the Circumferentor.
● It essentially consists of a graduated horizontal circle, a pivoted magnetic needle,
and a sighting device.
● The size of the surveyor compass is defined by the diameter of the reading edge of
the graduated ring. It generally ranges from 50 mm to 200 mm.
● The surveyor compass is used to determine the reduced bearings or quadrantal
bearings of lines.
Types of Compass in Surveying

The parts of the surveyor compass

are listed below:

○ Box
○ Lifting lever
○ Pivot
○ Glass top
○ Circular graduated arc
○ Sight vane
○ Jewel bearing
○ Lifting pin
○ Magnetic needle
○ Rider
○ Metal pin
○ Object vane
Surveyor compass bearing
Level Compass
A "level compass" typically refers to a compass that incorporates a bubble level, also
known as a spirit level. The bubble level is a small, transparent tube partially filled with
liquid and an air bubble.

Bearings in Compass Survey

Bearings are used to express the direction of survey lines or features. A bearing is the
angle between a survey line and a reference direction, typically measured clockwise
from the north direction.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Compass Surveying
Compass Surveying comes with several advantages and disadvantages of its own. Let's look at them;

Advantages of Compass Surveying

○ They are portable and lightweight.
○ They have fewer settings to fix it on a station
○ The error in direction produced in a single survey line does not affect other lines.
○ It is suitable to retrace old surveys.
○ No electric power is required for the operation of compass surveying.

Disadvantages of Compass Surveying

○ It is less precise compared to other advanced methods of surveying.
○ It is easily subjected to various errors such as errors adjoining to magnetic meridian, local
attraction etc.
○ Imperfect sighting of the ranging rods and inaccurate levelling also cause an error.
Application of Compass Surveying
The application of compass surveying are as follows:

○ It helps to measure the bearings of lines.

○ It helps to measure the included angles.
○ Declination and dip can be measured using compass surveying.
○ Differences in elevations can be computed using the angle
measurements.
THEODOLITE SURVEYING
THEODOLITE SURVEYING

The system of surveying in which the

angles are measured with the help of a
theodolite, is called Theodolite surveying
The Theodolite is a most precise instrument used for measurement of horizontal and
vertical angles

Theodolite is more precise than magnetic compass.

Magnetic compass measures the angle up to accuracy of 30’.
eg: 120о30’
However a theodolite measures the angles up to an accuracy of 20”.
eg: 120о40’20’’
 CLASSIFICATION OF THEODOLITES
i) Transit Theodolite.
ii) Non Transit Theodolite

Transit Theodolite : A theodolite in which line of sight can be reversed by

revolving the telescope through 180о in vertical plane

Non-Transit theodolite : line of sight cannot be reversed

They are inferior in utility and have now become obsolete.
 PARTS OF THEODOLITE

● Telescope
● Vertical circle
● The standards or ( A frame)
● Levelling head
● Lower plate
● Upper plate
● Plate level , altitude bubble
● Tripod
● Plumb bob
 Terms used in theodolite survey

Vertical Axis

● It is the axis about which the

instrument can be rotated in the
horizontal plane

Horizontal Axis or trunnion axis

● It is the axis about which the telescope
can be rotated in the vertical plane.
 Line of Collimation
● It is also known as the line of sight.

● It is an imaginary line joining the intersection of the horizontal and vertical

cross- hairs of the diaphragm to the optical centre of the object- glass and its
continuation

eyepiece
objective
Axis of the Level Tube
● It is a straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at the
centre of the tube.

Centering :
● Centering means setting the theodolite exactly over an instrument- station
● It can be done by means of plumb bob suspended from a small hook

Transiting :
● It is the process of turning the telescope about its horizontal axis through 180 0 in
the vertical plane
● Transiting is also known as plunging or reversing
Swinging the telescope

● It means turning the telescope in the horizontal plane.

● If the telescope is rotated in clockwise direction ,it is known as right swing

● If the telescope is rotated in anti clockwise direction ,it is known as left swing
Face Left

● If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the left side of the observer while taking a reading
,the position is called the face left and
● the observation taken on the horizontal or vertical circle in this position, is known as the face
left observation

Face Right

● If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right side of the observer while taking a
reading ,the position is called the face right and
● the observation taken on the horizontal or vertical circle in this position, is known as the face
right observation.
Changing Face

● It is the process of bringing the vertical circle from right to left of the observer or
vice versa.

● It is done in two steps;

● Firstly revolve the telescope through 1800 in a vertical plane and

● then rotate the telescope through 1800 in the horizontal plane

 ADJUSTMENTS OF A THEODOLITE

1. Permanent Adjustments.

2. Temporary Adjustments.
Temporary Adjustment

❑ The temporary adjustments are made at each set up of the instrument before we start taking observations
with the instrument.

❑ There are three temporary adjustments of a theodolite:-

i) Setting up

ii) Levelling.

iii) Focussing.
(i) Setting up

● Centring the instrument over the station mark by a plumb bob

● Approximate levelling with help of tripod legs by making the small circular bubble
central
(ii) Levelling

• Accurate levelling is done with foot screws and plate level

Levelling
(iii) Focussing
● Focussing the eyepiece : hold a sheet of white paper in front
of the objective and move the eyepiece in and out till the cross
hair are seen sharp and distinct

● Focussing the objective : telescope is directed towards the

object to be sighted and the focussing screw is turned till the
image appears sharp and clear
Fundamental lines of theodolite
1. Vertical axis

2. Horizontal axis

3. Line of collimation

4. Altitude level axis

5. Axis of plate level

 Desired relation between fundamental lines
i) The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis

ii) The line of collimation should be at right angles to the horizontal axis

iii) The axis of the altitude level must be parallel to the line of collimation

iv) The axis of the plate level must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.

v)The vertical circle vernier must read zero when the line of collimation is
horizontal.
Permanent adjustments of theodolite
● The permanent adjustments are made to establish the
relationship between the fundamental lines of the theodolite
and once made , they last for a long time.

● They are essential for the accuracy of observations.

 Reading a theodolite

Main scale reading (MSR) –

in degree and minutes

Vernier scale reading (VSR )

-- in minute and seconds

Total reading = MSR + VSR

Vernier scale reading

MSR = reading of main scale
corresponding to zero of Main scale
vernier 150 о 170о reading
160о
MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES:
There are three methods of measuring horizontal angles:-

i) Ordinary Method

ii) Repetition Method.

iii) Reiteration Method.

 Ordinary Method - To measure horizontal angle PQR

P R
i) Set up the theodolite at station point Q
and level it accurately.
ii) Set the zero of vernier A to the zero of
main scale. Tighten the upper clamp.
iii) Loosen the lower clamp. Turn the Q
instrument and direct the telescope
towards P to bisect it accurately with the
use of tangent screw. After bisecting
accurately check the reading which must
still read zero. Read the vernier B and
Ordinary Method - To measure horizontal angle AOB:

iv) Loosen the upper clamp and turn the P R

telescope clockwise until line of sight
bisects point R on the right hand side.
Then tighten the upper clamp and bisect
it accurately by turning its tangent
screw. Q
v) Read both verniers. HORIZONTAL ANGLE POQ

The reading of the vernier A which was

initially set at zero gives the value of the
angle P directly. The mean of the two
vernier readings gives the value of the
vi) Change the face of the instrument and P R
repeat the whole process. The mean of
the two vernier readings gives the
second value of the angle PQR
vii) The mean of the two values of the
angle PQR ,one with face left and the Q
other with face right ,gives the required
angle free from all instrumental errors.
P Q

o
ii) Repetition Method.
In this method ,the same angle is added P R
several times and the angle is obtained
by dividing the accumulated reading by
the no. of repetitions.

Q
In this way , angles can be measured to a
finer degree of accuracy
 Repetition Method.
To measure horizontal angle by
repetitions:- P R

i) Set up the theodolite at starting point Q

and level it accurately.
ii) Measure The horizontal angle PQR.
iii) Loosen the lower clamp and turn the Q
telescope clock – wise until the object P
is sighted again. Bisect R accurately by
using the upper tangent screw. The
verniers will now read the twice the
value of the angle now.
 iv) Repeat the process until the angle is
repeated the required number of times P R
(usually 3). Read again both verniers .
Divide the sum by the number of
repetitions and the result thus obtained
gives the correct value of the angle PQR
Q
v) Change the face of the instrument. Repeat
exactly in the same manner and find
another value of the angle PQR. The
average of two readings gives the required
precise value of the angle PQR.
P Q

O
iii) Reiteration Method.

This method consists in measuring

several angles successively and A B
finally closing the horizon at the
starting point. The final reading of
the vernier A should be same as its
initial reading. D o

AOB + BOC + COD + DOA = 360о C

Reiteration Method
iii) Reiteration Method.

Procedure
A B
i) Set up the instrument over station
point O and level it accurately.

ii) Direct the telescope towards point D o

A which is known as referring
object. Bisect it accurately and
check the reading of vernier as 00 . C
Reiteration Method
Loosen the lower clamp and turn
the telescope clockwise to sight
iii) Similarly bisect C & D
successively, read both verniers A B
iv) Finally close the horizon by
sighting A.
v) The vernier A should now read o
C
3600.
vi) If the error is small, it is equally
distributed among the several angles D
Reiteration Method
.If large the readings should be
discarded and a new set of readings
POQ =
QOR =
ROS =
SOP =

P Q

O
S

R
MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES:
Vertical Angle :
A vertical angle is an angle between the inclined line of sight and the horizontal. It
may be an angle of elevation or depression according as the object is above or below
the horizontal plane. A
A
AOB= α + β
α B
AOB= α - β
α
HORI. LINE β O HORI. LINE
O O HORI. LINE β
β
AOB= α - β Fig. c
α
Fig.a B B
Fig. b
A
 MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES:

To Measure the Vertical Angle AOB at station O: α

β
(i) Set up the theodolite at station point O and
level it accurately with reference to the plate
level.
(ii) Then Level the instrument with respect to
altitude bubble
(iii) Loosen the vertical circle clamp screw and
direct the telescope towards the object A and
sight it exactly by using the vertical circle
tangent screw.
MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES:

α
β

(v) Read both verniers (C & D ) on the vertical

circle, The mean of the two vernier readings gives
the value of the required angle.
(vi) Change the face of the instrument and repeat
the process. Take the average of 2 readings
(vii) Now telescope is lowered and point B is
sighted . Note the reading.
PLANE TABLE SURVEY
Plane Table Surveying
● graphical method of survey in which the field observations and plotting are done
simultaneously.

● It is simple and cheaper method.

● It is most suitable for small scale maps.

● The plan is drawn by the surveyor in the field, while the area to be surveyed is
before his eyes. Therefore, there is no possibility of omitting the necessary
measurements.
Equipments and Accessories for Plane Tabling

● Plane Table
● Tripod
● Alidade
● Trough Compass
● Spirit level
● U-Fork with Plumb bob
● Drawing paper
● Pins
 Plane Table
● The drawing board for plane tabling is made from well-seasoned wood with its upper
surface exactly plane.

● It is normally rectangular in shape with size 75 cm x 60 cm

● It is mounted on a tripod and clamps are provided to fix it in any direction. The table
can revolved about its vertical axis and can be clamped in any position, when necessary
● Drawing paper is used for plotting the ground details.
Alidade - useful for establishing a line of sight

● 2 types of alidade - Simple alidade

Telescopic alidade

1. Simple Alidade

● It is generally consists of a metal or wooden rule with two vertical vanes at

the ends.
● The eye-vane is provided with a narrow slit while the object vane is open
and carries a thin wire.
● Both the slits, thus provide a definite line of sight which can be made to
pass through the object to be sighted
● Line is drawn against the working edge ( fiducial edge ) of alidade .
● The fiducially edge is graduated to facilitate the plotting of distances.
Alidade: useful for establishing a line of sight

2. Telescopic Alidade
● used when it is required to take inclined sights.
● It essentially consists of a small telescope with a level tube and graduated
arc mounted on horizontal axis.
● It gives higher accuracy and more range of sights.
U-Fork With Plumb bob ( plumbing fork )
● used for centering the table over the station occupied by the plane
table when the plotted position of that point is already on the sheet.
Trough compass

● Used for orienting the plane table to magnetic north

● Needle points towards north
● Longer sides of trough are parallel so that either side can
be used as ruler
Spirit Level
● A Spirit Level is used for ascertaining if the table is
properly level.

● The table is levelled by placing the spirit level on the

board in two positions at right angles and getting the
bubble central in both positions.
Working operations - 3 process are needed for setting the
plane table on the station
• a) Fixing – fixing the table on to the tripod
• The Table should be set up at convenient height for working on the board,
say about 1 m. The legs of Tripod should be spread well apart and firmly
into the ground

• b) Setting –
(i) Levelling : table is levelled by placing the spirit level on the table in two
position at right angles and making the bubble central in both positions
(ii) Centring :
❑ The table should be so placed over the station on the ground that the point
plotted on the sheet corresponding to the station occupied should be exactly over
the station on the ground.
❑ It is done by U-fork and plumb bob

(iii) Orientation :
❑ process of putting the plane table into some fixed direction such that line representing a
certain direction on the plan is parallel to that direction on the ground
Orientation by trough compass

● Compass is so placed on the plane table that needle

floats centrally and a line is drawn against longer side of
compass

● At any other station if the table is to be oriented ,

compass is placed against the line and table is oriented
by turning it until the compass floats centrally
Orientation by Back Sighting

● A= First survey station

● B= Second survey station

❑ Line ab is drawn from plotted position of station A towards next station B

❑ Distance AB is measured and plotted position of station B is located

❑ Plane table is shifted to B and centred such that b is exactly over B

❑ Now to orient the table at B , alidade is kept on line ba and the table is turned about the vertical axis till the line of sight bisects the ranging rod at A. The board is then clamped in this
position.

● This method is better than the previous one and it gives perfect orientation.
Sighting the points
Advantages

• It is simple and cheaper than the theodolite survey.

• It is most suitable for small scale maps.
• No great skill is required to produce a satisfactory map and work may be
entrusted to a subordinate.
• It is useful in magnetic areas where compass may not be used.
• The mistakes in writing field books are eliminated.

Disadvantages
• It is not intended for very accurate work.
• It is not suitable in monsoon.
• It is essentially a tropical instrument.
• Due to heaviness, it is inconvenient to transport.
• Since there are so many accessories, there is likelihood of them being lost.
Methods Of Plane Tabling

There are four distinct methods of plane tabling:

● Method of Radiation
● Method of Intersection
● Method of Traversing
● Method of Resection
Radiation Method

● In this method, a ray is drawn from instrument station

towards the point to be located
● the distance between instrument station and that point is
measured
● A suitable scale is chosen and the point is marked on the
ray
● This method is used when distances are small ( within a
tape length )
Method Of Intersection

● The intersection method is suitable

when distances of objects are large
or cannot be measured properly.

● The location of an object is

determined by sighting at the
object from two plane table stable
station and drawing rays

● The intersection of these rays will

give the position of the object
Method Of Traversing
● The stations are plotted by method of
radiation by taking back sight on the
preceding station and a fore sight to
the following station.
● In case of traversing , observation are
taken to those points which will
subsequently be used as instrument
stations
Method of Resection
● Resection is the process of determining the plotted position of the station occupied by
the plane table, by means of sights taken towards known points, locations of which have
been plotted.

methods of resection.
● By back sighting
● By two point problem
● By three point problem
Resection by backsighting

● C is the station to be located on the plan and A and B be two

visible points which have been plotted on the sheet as a and b
.

● Set the table at A and orient it by back sighting B along ab

● Pivoting the alidade at a , sight C and draw a ray .Estimate

roughly the position of C on this ray as c1

● Shift the table to C and centre it approximately with respect to

c1 .Keep the alidade on c1a and orient the table by back
sighting to A .clamp the table which have been oriented .

● Pivoting the alidade about b, sight B and draw resector bB to

intersect the ray c1a in c .Thus C is the location of instrument
station
Three point problem
● Location of the position, on the plan , of the station occupied by plane table by means of observation to 3 well defined points whose position has been previously plotted on the plan

● 3 methods

1. The graphical method

2. The Mechanical Method
3. The method of Trial and error
Mechanical method ( tracing paper method )
• Let A, B and C are the three well-defined points
which have been plotted on the map as a, b and c. It is
required to locate a station at P.

• Set the table at P and orient the table approx. with eye
so that ab is parallel to AB

• Fix a tracing paper on the sheet and a point p’ as

approx. location of P

• Pivoting the alidade p’ , sight points A, B and C and

• unfasten tracing paper and rotate it on the
drawing paper in such a way that p’a’,p’b’
and p’c’ pass through a, b and c.

• Transfer p’ on to the sheet and represent it

as p. Remove the tracing paper and join pa,
pb, and pc

• Keep the alidade along pa . Loosen the

 Graphical method or Bessel’s method
❑Set the table at P, keep the alidade along ba and rotate
the table so that A is bisected

❑Pivoting the alidade about b, sight to C and draw the ray

xy along the edge of the alidade

❑Keep the alidade along ab and rotate the table till B is

bisected .Clamp the table

❑Pivoting the alidade about a,sight to C .Draw ray along

the edge of the alidade to intersect xy at c’

❑Keep the alidade along c’c and rotate the table till C is
bisected .Clamp the table. The table is oriented
 Lehmann’s method (trial and error method )
❑Set the table at P and orient the table
approx. such that ab is ll AB
❑Keep the alidade pivoted about a and sight
A. draw the ray .similarly draw rays from b
and c towards B and C
❑If the orientation is correct the 3 rays will meet
at one point .If not , they will meet in 3 points
forming a small triangle of error
❑ choose a point p’
❑Keep the alidade along p’a and rotate the
table along p’a and rotate the table to sight
A .Clamp the table .This will give next
approximate orientation
❑Keep the alidade at b to sight B and draw a
LEVELLING
 What is “Leveling”
● Levelling is the process by which differences in height between two or
more points can be determined.

Purpose

• to provide heights or contours on a plan

• to provide data for road cross-sections or volumes of earthworks
• to provide a level or inclined surface in the setting out of
construction works
 Some Basic Definitions

● Level surface
○ A water surface with no motion
○ Gravity gradient is the normal to the level surface
○ The Instrument’s Bubble is in the normal (!)

● Horizontal surface
○ At the instruments axis, the horizontal surface is tangent to the
level surface
○ Over short distances (<100 m) the horizontal surface and the
level surface will coincide
 Basic Principle of Leveling

● Measures height differences between points

○ Along a line

○ Several points from one occupation

Leveling rods
Line of sight
Back sight Fore sight
fs
bs
Δh = bs - fs

Gravity Gradient
Datum Definitions
● an arbitrary level surface to which the heights of all points are referred.
Mean sea level (MSL)

● the average (mean) height of the sea between High and Low tides

Reduced Level (RL)

● A distance recorded as a Height Above or Below the DATUM. This height is in

metres

A benchmark

● permanent marker placed by a surveyor with a precisely known vertical elevation

(but not necessarily a precisely known horizontal location).

● Relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to some

Line of Collimation : Definitions
The line of collimation is the imaginary line joining the intersection of the cross hair
and the optical center of the objective and its extensions, it is also called line of sight or
collimation.
 Definitions

Height of Instrument (HI) :

The elevation of the line of sight or plane of collimation when the instrument is
correctly levelled is known as HI.
Back sight : (B.S.) -
The first sight taken on a levelling staff held at a point of known elevation.

B.S. enables the surveyor to obtain HI +sight i.e. Height of Instrument or line of sight.
Fore Sight : (F.S.)

It is the last staff reading taken from a setting of the level.. This is also called minus
sight as the foresight reading is always subtracted from height of Instrument.
Change Point (CP) :
The point on which both the foresight and back sight are taken during the operation of levelling is
called change point.
Intermediate Sight (IS) :
Any levelling sight which is neither BS nor a FS, is known as intermediate sight.
It may be noted that for one setting of a level, there will be only one back sight and one foresight
Parallax
but there can be any number of intermediate sights.
• Apparent movement of the
image relatively to the
cross-hairs when the image
formed by the objective does
not fall in the plane of the
diaphram.
 Instruments for Levelling
1. Level Instrument
2. Tripod
3. Staff/Pole
4. Change plate (German: Frog/Frosch)
5. Pole staff bubble (bull eye)
6. Marker
 Instruments for Levelling
1. Level Instrument
An instrument giving horizontal line of sight and magnifying the reading at far away
place. It consists of :
- A telescope to provide line of sight
- A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal

- A leveling head to bring the bubble in its centre of run

- A tripod to support the instrument 5. Modern/ Tilting level
Types of Levels 6. Automatic Level
1. Dumpy level 7. Digital Auto level
2. Wye or Y Level
3. The Cooke’s Reversible Level
 Level Instrument: Telescope
1. Telescope :
Telescope is an optical instrument used for magnifying and viewing the images
of distant objects.
It consists of two lenses.
The lens fitted near the eye is called the eye piece and the other fitted at the
end near to the object is called the objective lens.

The objective provides a real inverted image in front of the eye piece at a
distance lesser than its focal distance.
Two essential conditions are involved. :
i) The real image of the object, must be formed.
 Reading an E-type levelling staff
The value is ?
Read value at
the

2
horizontal

93
cross hair

1.
1.930
1.920
1.910
1.900
 Level Instrument: Telescope
Focusing of Telescope :
● The operation of obtaining a clear image of the object
in the plane of cross hairs is known as focusing.

Diaphram :
• A frame carrying cross hairs usually made of either silk thread or platinum
wire and placed at the plane at which vertical image of the object is formed
by the objective.
• Vertical hair of the diaphram enables the surveyor to check the verticality of
levelling staff whereas horizontal hairs are used to read the staff graduations
The diaphragm (cross-hairs)

To provide visible horizontal and vertical reference lines in the

telescope.

Line of collimation

With adjustment screws the diaphragm can be moved in

the telescope to adjust the line of collimation.
 Level Instrument: Level Tube

[Link] Tube :

● Also known as Bubble Tube consists of a glass tube placed in a brass tube
which is sealed with plaster of paris.
● Level tube is filled with either or alcohol, the remaining space is occupied
by an air bubble.

● The centre of air bubble always rest at the highest point of the tube
 Types of Levels

1. Dumpy level 5. Modern/ Tilting level

2. Wye or Y Level 6. Automatic Level

7. Digital Auto level
3. The Cooke’s Reversible Level

4. The Cushing’s Level

 Level Instrument: Types
Dumpy level
● Dumpy literally means short and thick.

● It is simple compact and stable.

● The telescope is rigidly fixed to its support therefore cannot be rotated about its longitudinal
axis and not removed from its supports.

● A long bubble tube is attached to the top of telescope.

● Greater stability of adjustments than Y level.
 Level Instrument: Types
Wye/ Y level
● Very delicate instrument
● Consists of many loose and open parts liable to
frictional wears
● It combines a large spirit level mounted in parallel
to a removable
telescope in Y-shaped supports.
● A surveyor's compass is included for precise
directional sightings.
● Can be revolved about its longitudinal axis in the
Ys.
 Level Instrument: Types
The Cooke’s Reversible Level
● Combines good features of both dumpy and Y levels

● The telescope can be rotated about its longitudinal axis in its sockets and also withdrawn from
its sockets
● It may be rotated about its line of sight giving a bubble left and bubble right reading thus
eliminating the parallax error

●ThePermits an easy
Cushing’s permanent adjustment
Level
• Telescope can neither be removed
nor it can be revolved
• The object glass and the eye piece
along with the diaphram ring are
 Tilting level
• It consists of a telescope attached
with a level tube which can be tilted
within few degrees in vertical plane
by a tilting screw.
• The bubble must be brought to the
centre with the help of tilting screw
at each observation
 Tilting level
• The main peculiarity of this level is that
the vertical axis need not be truly
vertical, since the line of collimation is
not perpendicular to it.
• The line of collimation, is, however,
made horizontal for each pointing of
telescope by means of tilting screw.
• It is mainly designed for precise
levelling work
• The main disadvantage of tilting levels
is that before each reading is made, the
 The Automatic level
• The Automatic level : Also termed as self
aligning level.
• The fundamental difference between
automatic and the classic spirit level is that in
the former the line of sight is no longer
levelled manually using a tubular spirit level,
but is levelled automatically within a certain
tilt range.
• This is achieved by compensator in the
 Digital Levels
● Uses Barcode staffs
● Internal storage of data
○ Download to the computer
○ Automated height computation + adjustment
○ No feeling for quality anymore
○ You frequently need power plugs
 Instrument for Levelling: Tripod

● Wooden design or aluminum

○ From “easy to sit” to “ops, this is high”
 Instruments for Levelling
Leveling Staffs

● The staff is simply a large ruler, available in lengths of 3, 4

or 5 metres and usually made of aluminium with telescopic
sections

Barcode
for Digital Levels
 Instruments for Levelling: Levelling Staffs

Reading the E Staff

•Color Alternates every metre
•Each graduation is 100mm
•Each “E” is 50mm
•Metre height & 1/10m is located in
lower 50mm
•Each Part of the E is 10mm
•Millimeters are interpolated
•Staff is read to the millimeter
 Instruments for Levelling: Bubble
● Keep the pole upright
○ Any tilt will disturb your readings

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS
Sea Level Training
Course - Oostende,
Instruments for LevellingSurvey Marker
● Gives you a fixed point
○ Should be of good quality
○ Should be long-term
○ Preferable in bedrock, settled buildings, or bridges
○ Do not use fences or walls

ODINAFRICA/GLOSS
Sea Level Training
Course - Oostende,
 Adjustment of the Level
Temporary Adjustments :
1. Setting up the level
● Fixing the instrument on the tripod
● Leg adjustment
2. Levelling Up : Center the circular bubble by adjusting the foot screws.
(to approximately level the instrument)
3. Elimination of parallax
● Focussing the Eye piece
● Focussing the object glass

Levelling Up
 Direction of
Primary axis being
left thumb
Movement levelled

Direction of
bubble Trivet base/ tribach
movement
Spirit Thumbscrews
Level

Direction of
bubble movement

Direction of left
thumb Movement

Secondary axis being

levelled
• Accurate levelling is done with the help of foot screws .
• The object of levelling up the instrument is to make its vertical axis truly vertical.
Setting up and Using the Tilting /Modern Level

Tilting level Bubble tube

Diaphragm

Tilting screw
Circular bubble Tilting axis

Tribrach
(Levelling head)

Clamping screw - to fix the telescope in one vertical plane

Tangent screw (slow motion screw) - to finely rotate the

telescope along a vertical axis
 Tilting level
How can we view the bubble tube?

• Using a mirror (older instrument)

• Prismatic coincidence reader (modern instruments)

Prism

Bubble tube Bubble tube

Bubble tube is tilted Bubble tube is horizontal (leveled)

Taking Bearing with the Compass attached to the Level

 Procedure
- Balancing or Equalizing Back sight andof levelling
Foresight distances

*line of collimation should be horizontal when staff readings are taken

* lengths of Back Sight and Foresight are made nearly equal for accurate
work
to find true difference of level between two points, the level must be kept exactly
midway between them but not necessarily on the line joining them.

- Holding the Staff

* truly vertical while taking reading

- Reading the staff

 Levelling Steps in Levelling
Staff
Height of the Plane of Collimation (HPC ) or(HI)
S1 S2

(unknown
RL B )
RL A
(known)
A
1. Find the elevation or RL of the plane of collimation (HI) of the level byBtaking a back
sight on a bench mark
2. Find the elevation or RL of any point by taking a reading on the staff held at that
point HI = RL of plane of collimation = R.L BM (A) + BS (S1)
R.L at any point (B) = R.L BM (A) + BS (S1) = HI - IS (S2)
a) Simple levelling : The operation of levelling for determining the difference in
Principles of levelling
elevation, if not too great between two points visible from single position of the level is
known as simple levelling.
b) Differential levelling or fly levelling :
This method is used in order to find the difference in elevation between two points.
i) If they are too far apart
ii) if the difference in elevation between them is too great.
iii) If there are obstacles intervening. In such case it is necessary to set up the level in several
positions and to work in series of stages.
Simple levelling :

1. Level the instrument correctly

2. Direct the telescope towards the staff held
3. Take the reading of Central, horizontal hair of the diaphragm, where it appears to cut
the staff ensuring that the bubble is central.
4. Send the staff to next point
5. Direct the telescope towards C and focus it again
6. Check up the bubble if central, if not bring it to the Central position by the foot screw
nearest to the telescope.
7. Take the reading of Central Horizontal cross hair.
Differential/ compound/continuous levelling :
The difference of level of any points A&B is equal to the algebraic sum of these
difference between the sum of back sights and sum of the fore sights
i.e. H = Σ BS - Σ FS
RL of B= RL .A+ (Σ BS - Σ FS)
Where RL of A is known and B is unknown

Booking and reduction of the levels may be done by following 2 methods.

i) Rise and fall method

the instrument is obtained by comparing their staff readings.
- The difference between their staff readings indicates a rise if back sight is more than
foresight and a fall if it is less than foresight.
- The Rise and Fall worked out for all the points given the vertical distances of each point
relative to the proceeding one.
- If the RL of the Back staff point is known, then RL of the following staff point may be
obtained by adding its rise or subtracting fall from the RL of preceding point.

Arithmetic Check:
Σ BS- Σ FS= Σ Rise- Σ Fall= Last RL-First RL
In this method Height of Instrument (H.I) is calculated for each setting of the
instrument by adding the back sight (B.S) to the elevation of B.M.

Height of instrument (H.I) = R.L of B.M+ B.S

RL of a point = H.I. – FS Or = H.I. – IS - After every back sight, there may be
many intermediate sights but there must be only one foresight. - The B.S. & F.S.
forms the two ends of one stage in levelling. - Levelling should always
commence from a permanent B.M. and end on a permanent B.M.
 H
H I
I BS FS
BS FS
RL C
RL RL B
C
AA (CP) B
RL A is
known
HI RL A + BS RL B = HI - FS
=
Now the RL B is So we can repeat the process
known
HI RL B + BS RL C = HI - FS
Generally
=
HI = Known RL + Back Sight
Unknown RL = HI - Fore Sight
INTRODUCTION TO MODERN SURVEYING
INSTRUMENT
UAV Drone
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without any
human pilot, crew, or passengers on board.

UAVs were originally developed through the twentieth century for military missions too "dull, dirty
or dangerous" for humans, and by the twenty-first, they had become essential assets to most
militaries.

As control technologies improved and costs fell, their use expanded to many non-military
applications.

These include aerial photography, precision agriculture, forest fire monitoring, river
monitoring,environmental monitoring, policing and surveillance, infrastructure inspections,
smuggling, product deliveries, entertainment, and drone racing.
Elbit Systems Hermes-450 taking off
A General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper, a hunter-killer
Northrop Grumman Bat carrying EO/IR and SAR surveillance UAV
sensors, laser range finders, laser designators,
infra-red cameras

Although most large military UAVs are fixed-wing

A DJI Phantom quadcopter UAV for commercial aircraft, rotorcraft designs (i.e., RUAVs) such as this
and recreational aerial photography MQ-8B Fire Scout are also used.
Classification types
UAVs may be classified like any other aircraft, according to design configuration such as weight or
engine type, maximum flight altitude, degree of operational autonomy, operational role, etc.

According to the United States Department of Defense, UAVs are classified into five categories below:
HOW TO DO A DRONE SURVEY

1. Prepare for the survey by understanding project requirements, assessing the site and
environmental factors, obtaining necessary permissions and certifications, and planning the
flight path.
2. Launch the drone safely and follow the pre-planned flight path, making adjustments as
needed to ensure data captured is accurate and complete.
3. Capture data using sensors and cameras, monitoring and controlling the drone during the
survey to ensure the survey is conducted safely and efficiently.
4. Ensure safety and compliance throughout the process by following regulatory requirements,
avoiding obstacles and hazards, and using necessary safety equipment.
5. Post-process and analyze the data using data processing software to create a point cloud,
orthomosaic, or digital elevation model.
6. Generate reports and visualizations based on the data captured to inform decision-making.
Key Components Of A Drone Survey

A drone survey involves the use of drones equipped with specialized hardware and software to capture
aerial data. The key components of a drone survey include drone hardware and drone software.

DRONE HARDWARE

Drone hardware is a crucial component of drone technology that enables the unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) to conduct surveys and gather aerial data. The key components of drone hardware include:

GPS SYSTEM

The GPS system is an essential component of a drone survey. It allows the drone to determine its location
and altitude accurately. This information is essential for creating accurate maps and 3D models. The GPS
system also enables the drone to navigate to specific locations, follow a pre-planned flight path, and return
to its starting point safely.
CAMERA AND SENSORS

The camera and sensors on the drone capture the data needed for the survey. High-resolution
cameras are used to capture images and videos, while sensors such as LiDAR and infrared
sensors are used to capture other types of data. The camera and sensors on the drone can be
customized according to the specific requirements of the survey.

BATTERIES AND CHARGING SYSTEMS

Drones require batteries to fly, and a drone survey may require multiple flights. Therefore, having
spare batteries and a charging system is essential to ensure that the drone can complete the
survey. The battery life of the drone is an important consideration when planning the flight path, as
it affects the duration of the flight and the area that can be covered.
DRONE SOFTWARE

Drone software is a critical component of drone technology that enables unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs) to conduct surveys and gather aerial data. The software includes the programs and
applications that run on the drone’s onboard computer or a ground-based computer. Drone
software plays an important role in flight planning, data processing, and reporting and visualisation.

FLIGHT PLANNING

Flight planning software is used to plan the flight path of the drone. The software takes into
account the project requirements, site and environmental factors, and regulatory requirements. It
also ensures that the drone flies safely and captures the required data. Flight planning software
can also be used to adjust the flight path in real-time, in case of unexpected changes in the
environment or other factors.
DATA PROCESSING

Data processing software is used to process the data captured by the drone. This includes creating
maps, 3D models, and other survey outputs. The software may also include tools for analysing and
interpreting the data. Data processing software can be customised according to the specific
requirements of the survey.

REPORTING AND VISUALIZATION

Reporting and visualisation software is used to create reports and visualisations based on the data
captured by the drone. The software may include tools for creating maps, charts, and other
visualisations. This software can be used to create reports that provide insights into the data
captured, allowing stakeholders to make informed decisions.

In summary, the key components of a drone survey are drone hardware and drone software. Drone
hardware includes the GPS system, camera and sensors, and batteries and charging systems.
Drone software includes flight planning, data processing, and reporting and visualization.
 GPS (Global Positioning system)
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a
U.S.-owned utility that provides users with
positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT)
services. This system consists of three
segments: the space segment, the control
segment, and the user segment.
GPS equivalent in India is called
The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System
(IRNSS) also known as NavIC (Navigation with
Indian Constellation) is a group of 7 satellites that
provides Global positioning system (GPS) service
in India. It provides real-time positioning and
timing [Link] covers India and a region
extending 1500 km around it.
 Who introduced GPS?
The U.S. Department of Defense developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites, for
use by the United States military, and became fully operational in 1995. Civilian use was
allowed from the 1980s.
 Surveying using GPS
Initially developed for military use, GPS is now part of everyday life. A few of the many
things that GPS is used in include: mobile phones, in-car navigation and search and
rescue equipment. But there is a wide variety of equipment and techniques that can be
used for surveying.

GPS was rapidly adapted for surveying, as it can give a position (Latitude, Longitude and
Height) directly, without the need to measure angles and distances between intermediate
points. Survey control could now be established almost anywhere and it was only
necessary to have a clear view of the sky so the signal from the GPS satellites could be
received clearly.
HOW IS GPS USED IN SURVEYING?

Surveying and mapping was one of the first commercial adaptations of GPS, as it provides a latitude and longitude position
directly without the need to measure angles and distances between points.

However, it hasn’t entirely replaced surveying field instruments such as the theodolite, Electronic Distance Meter, or the more
modern Total Station, due to the cost of the technology and the need for GPS to be able to ‘see’ the satellites therefore restricting
its use near trees and tall buildings.

In practice, GPS technology is often incorporated into a Total Station to produce complete survey data. Receivers used for base
line measurements are generally more complex and expensive than those in common use, requiring a high quality antenna.
3 METHODS UTILISED BY SURVEYORS

There are three methods of GPS measurement utilised by

surveyors.

1. STATIC GPS BASELINE

This is used for determining accurate coordinates for survey points

by simultaneously recording GPS observations over a known and
unknown survey point for at least 20 minutes. The data is then
processed in the office to provide coordinates with an accuracy of
better than 5mm depending on the duration of the observations and
satellite availability at the time of the measurements.
GPS Baseline

A GPS baseline uses two survey-quality GPS receivers, with one at

each end of the line to be measured. They collect data from the
same GPS satellites at the same time. The duration of these
simultaneous observations varies with the length of the line and the
accuracy needed, but is typically an hour or more. When the data
from both points is later combined, the difference in position
(Latitude, Longitude and Height) between the two points is
calculated with special software. Many of the uncertainties of GPS
positioning are minimized in these calculations because the
distortions in the observations are similar at each end of the baseline
and cancel out.

The accuracy obtained from this method depends on the duration of

the observations, but is typically about 1 part per million (1 millimetre
per kilometre) so a difference in position can be measured over 30
kilometres with an uncertainty of about 30 mm, or about 100 mm
over 100 kilometres. Because the GPS satellites are in a very high
orbit (20,000 km) the ends of the GPS baseline can be hundreds, or
even thousands of kilometres apart and still observe the same
satellites.

Although a single baseline from a known position is enough to give

the position at the other end of the baseline, additional GPS
baselines to other points are often measured to give a check on the
results and an estimate of the uncertainty of the calculated position.
2. REAL TIME KINEMATIC (RTK)
OBSERVATIONS

This is where one receiver remains in one position

over a known point – the Base Station – and another
receiver moves between positions – the Rover Station.
The position of the Rover can be computed and stored
within a few seconds, using a radio link to provide a
coordinate correction. This method gives similar
accuracy to baseline measurements within 10km of
the base station.
Kinematic GPS

There are many variations on this type of GPS surveying. Generally it is similar to the GPS baseline
method, except that while one GPS receiver remains on a known position (Base Station), the other moves
between points and it only needs to be at each point for a few seconds. Corrections to the GPS data
(based on the known Base Station position and its position computed from the GPS) may be immediately
transmitted from the receiver on the Base Station to the receiver at the other end of the line (the remote
station). The position of the remote station can then be computed and stored, all within a few seconds.
Radios or mobile phones can be used to transmit the corrections. Although this method can give similar
accuracy to the baseline method previously described, to do so this method is generally limited to a
distance of about 20 kilometres.
3. CONTINUOUSLY OPERATING REFERENCE
STATIONS (CORS)

This where a survey quality GPS receiver is permanently

installed in a location as a starting point for any GPS
measurements in the district. Common users of CORS are
mining sites, major engineering projects and local
governments. Surveyors’ GPS receivers can then collect field
data and combine it with the CORS data to calculate positions.

Many countries have a CORS network that are used by many

industries. Australia’s CORS network is the Australian
Regional GPS Network, and uses an online processing system
to deliver data over the internet within 24 hours, and give
positions within an accuracy of a few centimetres. Local CORS
networks are also used to provide instant positions similar to
the RTK method by using a mobile phone data link to provide
a coordinate correction to the surveyor and their rover.
 Distomat
Distomat is a measuring tool used in surveying and
construction industries to measure distances between points
accurately.

It uses laser technology to determine the distance between two

points, making it more accurate and faster than traditional
surveying methods.

The tool has become popular recently due to its accuracy, ease
of use, and efficiency in measuring distances.
 Digital Levels
A digital level is an instrument that can be used to perform advanced levelling work, automatic
height calculations and basic construction work. It uses gravity as its reference point and reads
bar-code scales from a bar-coded staff to capture extremely accurate readings.

The observer points the level at the bar-code rod, brings the image into focus, and pushes a
button to take the measurements and the data is collected to an on-board recording module.
This eliminates reading errors, observer fatigue errors and the need of a manual recorder
person.
 Auto Levels
An automatic level is an optical instrument used to establish or verify points in the same horizontal
plane in a process known as leveling and is used in conjunction with a leveling staff to establish the
relative heights levels of objects or marks.

A dumpy level, automatic level, leveling instrument is

an optical instrument used to establish or verify
points in the same horizontal plane. It is used in
surveying and building with a vertical staff to
measure height differences and to transfer, measure
and set heights.
 Auto Levels
Advantages of Auto Level
● Auto level is very easy to use.
● No adjustment for staff reading is required in auto level as the actual reading is seen from the eyepiece.
● The bubble can be adjusted from any side and any angle with any 3 screws available.
● The auto level has an internal compensator mechanism which automatically adjusts the line of sight.
● The measurement accuracy of the auto level is higher.
● Auto level results are very reliable.
● Ease of use of auto level saves time and money.
● The price of the auto level is low and affordable.

Disadvantages of Auto Level

● Vertical angles cannot be measured.
● Horizontal angle is measured in the auto level is not very accurate.
 Difference between Dumpy level and Auto level
Dumpy Level Auto Level

1 In the dumpy level survey, staff reading need to be In the auto level, no adjustment for staff reading is
adjusted as inverted level staff reading is seen in the required as the actual reading is seen from the eyepiece.
eyepiece.

2 In the dumpy level, to level the bubble, one has to keep In the auto level, the bubble can be adjusted from any side
the bubble parallel to two leveling screws and then right and any angle with any 3 screws available.
angle to the third screw.

3 The line of sight is manually adjusted in the dumpy level. The auto level has an internal compensator mechanism
which automatically adjusts the line of sight.

4 It is difficult to make an accurate measurement with the The measurement accuracy of the auto level is higher
dumpy level. than the dumpy level.
 Electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM)
Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining
the length between two points using electromagnetic waves.

EDM instruments are highly reliable and convenient pieces of

surveying equipment and can be used to measure distances of up to
100 kilometers.
 Principle of EDM
Electronic Distance measurement (EDM) is a technology used for measuring the
distance between two points using electromagnetic waves.
The basic principle of EDM involves the transmission of an electromagnetic signal
from a transmitter to a reflector placed at the target point, and then the reception of
the reflected signal by a receiver at the measuring instrument.
The EDM instrument sends out a modulated electromagnetic wave that travels
through the air and is reflected back from the reflector at the target point.
The instrument then measures the time it takes for the wave to travel from the
instrument to the reflector and back again. By multiplying the time taken by the speed
of light, the distance between the instrument and the reflector can be calculated
accurately.
Total Station
A total station (TS) or total station theodolite (TST) is an
electronic/ optical instrument used for surveying and building
construction.

It is an electronic transit theodolite integrated with electronic

distance measurement (EDM) to measure both vertical and
horizontal angles and the slope distance from the instrument to
a particular point, and an on-board computer to collect data and
perform triangulation calculations.
Total Station

TOTAL STATION is a combination

of
● Electromagnetic Distance
Measuring Instrument (EDM)

● Electronic Theodolite and

● A simple Microprocessor
 INTRODUCTION
❖ It also has a memory card to store the data. It also consists of battery socket
which houses the battery.

❖ A fully charged battery works for about 3 to 8 hrs continuously

Parts of a Total Station
 ACCURACY OF A TOTAL STATION:

❖ The accuracy achieved with total station is mainly depends on operator procedure of Careful
centering and leveling of the instrument
❖ Accurate pointing at targets.
❖ Taking averages of multiple angle measurements made in both direct and reverse positions
❖ Peripheral equipment that can affect accuracy includes
❖ Tribrachs
❖ Optical plummets
❖ Prism and
❖ Prism poles
❖ Tribrachs must provide a snug fit without slippage
 OPERATION OF TOTAL STATION

❖ Because the Total Station contains delicate electronic components they are not as
rugged as ordinary Theodolite. They must be packed and transported carefully, handled
gently and carefully removed form their cases.
❖ The setting of Total Station over the station mark is similar to an ordinary Theodolite.
This includes
❖ Centering
❖ Leveling
❖ Removal of parallax
 APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL STATION IN SURVEYING
There are many other facilities available, the total station can be used for the
following purposes
● Remote elevation measurement- (REM)
● Fixing of missing pillars (or) Setting out (or) Stake out.
● Resection.
● Area calculations, etc.
● Remote distance measurement (RDM) or Missing line measurement (MLM)
APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL STATION IN SURVEYING
(REMOTE ELEVATION MEASUREMENT (REM))

● The process of finding the height of objects without actually

going to the top of the object is known as Remote Elevation
Measuring (REM) i.e., a total station placed remotely (faraway)
from the object is used to measure the heights
APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL STATION IN SURVEYING
FIXING OF MISSING PILLARS (OR) SETTING OUT (OR)
STAKE OUT:

● The process of fixing missing pillars on the ground using its theoretical coordinates is known as
STAKE OUT. Here two other known coordinates are required.
● Process of finding the positions of known coordinates points e.g. missing boundary pillars.
APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL STATION IN SURVEYING
RESECTION:
● The process of finding the coordinate of the instrument
position making use of other control points (points whose
coordinates are known) is known as RESECTION
APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL STATION IN SURVEYING
AREA CALCULATION:
● Area can be computed of any figure just by giving the
coordinates of the corner of the figure.
● Area Calculation.
● Process of finding the area of a closed figure.
USES OF TOTAL STATION

The uses of Total Station are as follows:

● Mine Survey

● Engineering Survey

● Large Scale Survey

● Road / Rail / Canal Survey

ADVANTAGES OF TOTAL STATION SURVEYING
● Great accuracy in area computation
● Quick setting of instrument on tripod using laser plummet
● Multiple surveys can be performed at one set-up location
● Relatively quick collection of data
● On-board display of measurements of co-ordinates areas etc..