Science and Technology:

An Introduction
 What is science? A vague explanation.

• You see something happen; you ask why?

• You want to make something happen; you ask how?
• Science is a tool for answering why and how.
 Science as a tool

• Medicine:
“I have high cholesterol, what should I do?”
– Take cholesterol lowering medication.
– Consult my astrologer.
– Pray to the god Baal and sacrifice a goat.
 Tests and Theories

• Science is a tool for telling you what works and

what doesn’t.
• How do you know if your theory (idea, model,
hypothesis) is right?
– You can test it
• A scientific theory must do two things:
– Explain what is seen.
– Predict what will happen in the future.
 The Scientific Method
1. Observe an event.
2. Develop a model (or hypothesis) which makes a
prediction.
model
3. Test the prediction.
4. Observe the result.
5. Revise the hypothesis.
test
6. Repeat as needed.
7. A successful hypothesis becomes a Scientific Theory.
 Medical Science
Scientific Method High Cholesterol
Observation Patient has high cholesterol
Hypothesis Certain chemicals may dissolve
(prediction) cholesterol deposits.
Test Give 100 patients these chemicals,
give 100 patients placebo.
Observe result Same number lower their cholesterol
as placebo patients.
Revise hypothesis? Try different combo of chemicals.
New test? Re-run medical test. Observe results.

Scientific Theory Lipitor reduces cholesterol.

 Everyday Science
Scientific Method Making Spaghetti Sauce
Observation Spaghetti sauce should be red.
Hypothesis (prediction) Maybe try a tomato sauce.
Test Heat pot of tomato sauce.
Observe result Taste the sauce - bland.
Revise hypothesis? Use tomato sauce and garlic!
New test? Add garlic, taste - not so bland.
Scientific Theory The Final Recipe.
 Recap: Theories, Guesses, Laws
• What does the word “Theory” mean to you?
“A conjecture; guess” (Webster’s Dictionary)
• Does it mean the same to a scientist?
“A model which has been born out by repeated tests
and observation.”
 Theories

• So: a theory is a highly successful hypothesis.

• All hypotheses make predictions.
• All theories make predictions.
• All theories can be tested.
• Result: Any scientific theory is subject to change
as our ability to make tests, or make observations
of a test’s results, improves with time.
 Non-scientific Theories
• Make no predictions
• Un-testable
• Can’t be falsified
• The chain of events needed for life to arise is too
complicated to have happened by chance, a
divine intelligence must therefore have caused
life to arise (Intelligent Design).
 Non-scientific Theories

• Cholesterol too high?  Aliens are clogging your

arteries with invisible probes.
• Spaghetti is bland?  You were meant to eat
bland food.
• Cholesterol too high?  Gods must be angry.
• Spaghetti is bland?  At the instant of tasting,
tongue is transported to alternate dimension
where all flavors are rendered nullified. Happens
instantaneously.
 What is Science?
 

or
1. Science is concerned with understanding how nature and the
physical world work.
2. Science can prove anything, solve any problem, or answer any
question.
3. Any study done carefully and based on observation is
scientific.
4. Science can be done poorly.
5. Anything done scientifically can be relied upon to be accurate
and reliable.
6. Different scientists may get different solutions to the same
problem.
7. Knowledge of what science is, what it can and cannot do, and
how it works, is important for all people.
Science is concerned with understanding how
nature and the physical world work.

Science is a process by which we try to understand how

the natural and physical world works and how it came to be
that way.
 Science can prove anything, solve any
problem or answer any question.

• Science actually attempts to disprove ideas

(hypotheses).
• Science is limited strictly to solving problems about
the physical and natural world.
• Explanations based on supernatural forces, values
or ethics can never be disproved and thus do not fall
under the realm of science.
Any study done carefully and
based on observation is scientific.

• Science must follow certain rules.

• The rules of science make the scientific process as
objective as is possible.

Objective = Not influenced by feelings, interests

and prejudices; UNBIASED
vs.
Subjective = Influenced by feelings, interests and
prejudices; BIASED
 Science can be done poorly.

Anything done scientifically can be relied upon

to be accurate and reliable.

• Science can be done poorly, just like any other

human endeavor.

• Quality control mechanisms in science increase the

reliability of its product.
Different scientists may get different solutions
to the same problem.

• Results can be influenced by the race, gender,

nationality, religion, politics or economic interests of the
scientist.

• Sampling or measurement bias can result in different

solutions to the same problem.
Knowledge of what science is, what it can and
cannot do, and how it works, is important for
all people.

People need to be able to evaluate scientific information in

order to make informed decisions about:

• Health care
• Environmental issues
• Technological advances
• Public health issues
 What is good science?

Objectivity is the key to good science.

To be objective, experiments need to be designed

and conducted in a way that does not introduce
bias into the study.
 Bias =
• A prejudiced presentation of material

• A consistent error in estimating a value

Two main types of bias:

1. Sampling bias

2. Measurement Bias
 Sampling Bias
Sample = A group of units selected to be
“measured” from a larger group (the
population).

Sampling bias is introduced when the

sample used is not representative of the
population or inappropriate for the question
asked.
 Factors that contribute to sampling bias

SAMPLE SIZE: Is the sample big enough to get a good

average value?
SELECTION OF SAMPLE: Does the composition of the
sample reflect the composition of the population?
Factors such as location, age, gender, ethnicity, nationality
and living environment can affect the data gathered.

How to minimize sample selection bias:

1. Use a RANDOM SAMPLE = every individual
has an equal likelihood of being chosen.
2. Limit the question asked to the specific group
sampled.
 Measurement Bias

Is the method of data collection chosen in such a

way that data collected will best match reality?

Evaluate the technique:

• Measurements taken accurately

• No additions to the environment that
will influence results
• Experiment designed to isolate the
effect of multiple factors
 Summary

Good science depends on a well-designed

experiment that minimizes bias by using the
appropriate:

•Sample size
•Sample selection
•Measurement techniques

***for the question being investigated

 The scientific community engages in
certain quality control measures to
eliminate bias.

Results are verified by independent duplication

and publication in a peer-reviewed journal.
Independent duplication = Two or more scientists from
different institutions investigate the same question
separately and get similar results.

Peer-reviewed journal = A journal that publishes articles

only after they have been checked for quality by several
expert, objective scientists from different institutions.
What then is technology?