Data Communications and

Computer Networks
 Network

A computer network is device, or group of

devices, that allows one computer to transmit
data to another computer, or group of computers.
Examples: Internet, E-Mail, Direct Connection.

Data communications - the transfer of digital or

analog data using digital or analog signals.
 NEED FOR NETWORKING

 Resource Sharing

 Reliability

 Saving Money

 Improved Communication
TYPES OF NETWORKS
There are three basic types of networks classified on the basis of
geographic area.
 Local Area Network (LAN)
• 10m - Room
• 100m - Building
• 1km - Campus
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• 10km - City
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
• 100km - Country
• 1000km - Continent
 The Internet
• 10000km - Planet
Local Area Network
Smaller networks that are confined to a localised area.
(e.g. an office, building or factory ) are known as LANs.

Metropolitan Area Network

Network spread across a city. E.g Cable T.V.

Wide Area Network

Network spread across countries. e,.g. Internet
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-
duplex)
 Network Components

The basic network components today

are:
 Cables
 Network Adapter Cards
 Hubs
 Switch
 Cables
The two types of network cabling are
twisted-pair (also known as 10BaseT)
and thin coax (also known as
10Base2).
 Twisted Pair
Two basic types of twisted-pair cable exist:
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded
twisted pair (STP).
1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
The following summarizes the features of UTP cable:
Speed and throughput—10 to 1000 Mbps
Average cost per node—Least expensive
Media and connector size—Small
Maximum cable length—100 m (short)
2. Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
The following summarizes the features of STP cable:
Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps
Average cost per node—Moderately expensive
Media and connector size—Medium to large
Maximum cable length—100 m (short)
 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable supports 10 to 100 Mbps and is relatively
inexpensive, although it is more costly than UTP on a per-
unit length. However, coaxial cable can be cheaper for a
physical bus topology because less cable will be needed.
Coaxial cable can be cabled over longer distances than
twisted-pair cable.
The following summarizes the features of coaxial cables:
Speed and throughput—10 to 100 Mbps
Average cost per node—Inexpensive
Media and connector size—Medium
Maximum cable length—500 m (medium)
 OPTICAL FIBRE
It consists of thin strands of glass or glass like material to transmit data
modulated onto light waves. They carry light from a source at one
end of the fiber to a detector at the other end.
Advantage
• Capable of carrying more data.
• Less susceptible to interference from outside world.
• Much thinner.
• Data can be transmitted digitally rather than analogically.
Disadvantage
• Expensive to install.
• Very fragile.
 Comparing Media Types
Media Maximum Speed Cost Advantages Disadvantages
Type Segment Length
UTP 100 m 10 Mbps to 1000 Least Easy to install; widely Susceptible to
Mbps expensive available and used interference; can
cover only a limited
distance
STP 100 m 10 Mbps to 1000 More Reduced crosstalk; Difficult to work
Mbps expensive more resistant to EMI with; can cover only
than UTP than Thinnet or UTP a limited distance
Coaxial 500m (Thicknet) 10 Mbps to 1000 Relatively Less susceptible to Difficult to work
185m (Thinnet) Mbps inexpensiv EMI interference than with (Thicknet);
e, but other types of copper limited bandwidth;
more media limited application
costly than (Thinnet); damage to
UTP cable can bring down
entire network
Fiber- 10 km and farther 100 Mbps to Expensi Cannot be tapped, so Difficult to terminate
security is better; can
Optic (single-mode) 100 Gbps ve
be used over great
2 km and farther (single mode) distances; is not
(multimode) 100 Mbps to susceptible to EMI;
has a higher data rate
9.92 Gbps than coaxial and
(multi mode) twisted-pair cable
 Network Adapter Card
A network computer is connected to the network
cabling with a network interface card, (also called a
"NIC", "nick", or network adapter). Some NICs are
installed inside of a computer: the PC is opened up
and a network card is plugged directly into one of the
computer's internal expansion slots. 286, 386, and
many 486 computers have 16-bit slots, so a 16-bit
NIC is needed.  Faster computers, like high-speed
486s,  Pentiums, PentiumII and PentiumIII, all have
32-bit, or PCI slots.
 MODEM
It is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and
communicate with other computer via telephone line.
Modem changes the digital data from your computer into analog
data, a format that can be carried over telephone lines.
In the same the modem receiving the call then changes the
analog signal back into digital data that the computer can
understand.
 HUB
The central connecting device is called a
hub. A hub is a box that is used to gather
groups of PCs together at a central location
with 10BaseT cabling.
 SWITCH
The Switching hub, sometimes called a "Switch" is a
more advanced unit over the basic hub.  In a basic
hub, all the computers connect to it and the speed of
the network is defined by the slowest computer
network card connected. 
 ROUTER
A router is a computer whose software and hardware are usually
tailored to the tasks of routing and forwarding.
This device routes the information packet between two or more
physically or logically connected networks.
It is different from Bridge as this uses logical address while bridge
uses physical address.
 BRIDGE
It is a device that lets you link two same networks
together. Same networks mean networks with same
protocol.

REPEATER

It is a device that amplifies and restores a signal being

transmitted on the network. It is used in long network
lines.
 GATEWAY
 This device usually a server is used to communicate
between dissimilar networks i.e. networks with different
protocols.
e.g. to connect a LAN with Novell Netware with another
LAN with Microsoft NT.

 In enterprises, the gateway is the computer that routes

the traffic from the workstation to the outside world.

 In homes, the gateway is the ISP that connects the

user to the Internet.
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Data can be analog or digital. The term analog
data refers to information that is continuous;
digital data refers to information that has discrete
states. Analog data take on continuous values.
Digital data take on discrete values.
 Wireless Communication
Wireless communication uses radio frequencies (RF) or infrared
(IR) waves to transmit data between devices on a LAN. For
wireless LANs, a key component is the wireless hub, or access
point, used for signal distribution. To receive the signals from the
access point, a PC or laptop must install a wireless adapter card
(wireless NIC). Some common applications of wireless data
communication include the following:
Accessing the Internet using a cellular phone
Establishing a home or business Internet connection over
satellite
Beaming data between two hand-held computing devices
Using a wireless keyboard and mouse for the PC
Another common application of wireless data communication is
the wireless LAN (WLAN), which is built in accordance with
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11
standards. WLANs typically use radio waves (for example, 902
megahertz [MHz]), microwaves (for example, 2.4 GHz), and IR
waves (for example, 820 nanometers [nm]) for communication.
Wireless technologies are a crucial part of the today's
networking.
Wireless Transmission Media
 TYPES OF TOPOLOGY
In networking, the term "topology" refers to the layout of
connected devices on a network.
Different types of topologies:
• Star
• Bus or Linear
• Tree
• Ring or Circular
• Graph
• Mesh
• Fully Connected
 STAR TOPOLOGY
This topology consists of a central node to which all the other nodes are
connected by a single path.
Advantages of a Star Topology
Easy to install and wire.
No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the cables
and concentrators.
 LINEAR TOPOLOGY
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All
nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.
The transmission from any station travels the length of the bus, in both directions, and
can be received by all the other stations.
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Easy to extend.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
Nodes need to be intelligent as there should be some way of deciding who can use the
network at any given time must be performed in each node.
 RING TOPOLOGY
The ring topology is a type of computer network configuration where each network
computer and device are connected to each other forming a large circle (or similar
shape).
Each packet is sent around the ring until it reaches its final destination. Thus, the data
travels in one direction only from node to node around the ring.
After passing through each node, it returns to the sending node, which removes it.
Today, the ring topology is seldom used.
Advantages
Short Cable length.
Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to
transmit
Disadvantages
Node failure causes network failure
Difficult o diagnose problem.
Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network.
 TREE TOPOLOGY
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It
consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.
Advantages of a Tree Topology
Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
 Considerations When Choosing a Topology:
Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a
network; you do not have to purchase concentrators.
Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by
adding another concentrator.
Reliability. Topology chosen for the network can help by allowing the location
of the fault to be detected and to provide some means of isolating it.
Summary: Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol

Twisted Pair
Ethernet
Linear Bus Coaxial
LocalTalk
Fiber

Twisted Pair Ethernet

Star
Fiber LocalTalk

Star-Wired Ring Twisted Pair Token Ring

Twisted Pair
Tree Coaxial Ethernet
Fiber
 Data Communication Model
Source: generates data to be transmitted
Transmitter: Converts data into transmittable
signals
Transmission System: Carries data
Receiver: Converts received signal into data
Destination: Takes incoming data
 Protocols
Protocol is a standard set of rules that govern how computer
communicates with each other. Protocol determines both the
format that a message must take and the way in which messages
are exchanged between computers. Protocols may be
implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of the two.

Some of the common protocols used on the Internet are:

• TCP/IP
• FTP
• HTTP
• PPP
• TELNET
 Advantages of Protocols
 A protocol between two layers should be detailed
enough to allow anyone to develop hardware or
software for that layer so that it correctly obeys each
protocol.
 Thus protocols allow interoperability between
different types of computer equipment.
PC can communicate with a Macintosh.
Different manufacturers make different
types of network cards (Layer 1) that can
inter-operate.
 Therefore users are not restricted to one particular
manufacturer, allowing greater choice and increasing
competition between the various manufacturers.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol)

TCP breaks the data into packets that the network can
handle efficiently, verifies that all the packets arrive at
their destination and then reassembles the data. IP
allots the destination address to the packets and also
allots the sequence numbers.
 FTP ( File Transfer Protocol )
Protocol which enables files to be transferred from one
computer to another. i.e. Downloading and Uploading of files.
FTP runs exclusively over TCP.

HTTP ( Hyper Text Transfer Protocol )

Protocol used to transfer hypertext files. Hypertext is an ordinary
text that has some extra features such as formatting, images,
multimedia and links to other documents.
HTTP is not constrained to using TCP/IP.
 PPP ( Point to Point Protocol )
PPP, is a data link protocol commonly used to establish a
direct connection between two nodes over serial cable,
phone line, cellular telephone, specialized radio links, or
fiber optic links. Most Internet service providers use PPP
for customers' dial-up access to the Internet.

TELNET (Remote Login)

TELNET (TELecommunication NETwork) is a network
protocol used on the Internet or local area network (LAN)
connections.
 Open Standards
To allow different manufacturers to implement
different protocols and to ensure that these protocols
inter-operate, there is a need for open standards

Standards Bodies:
ISO
International Standards Organisation
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IETF
Internet Engineering Task Force
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
 OSI
• Application layer - where the application using the network resides
– Common network applications include remote login, file transfer, e-mail, and
web page browsing
• Presentation layer - performs series of miscellaneous functions
necessary for presenting the data package properly to the sender or
receiver
• Session layer - responsible for establishing sessions between users
• Transport layer - provides end-to-end error-free network connection
– Makes sure data arrives at destination exactly as it left the source
• Network layer - responsible for creating, maintaining and ending
network connections
– Transfers a data packet from node to node within the network
• Data link layer - responsible for taking data and transforming it into a
frame with header, control and address information, as well as error
detection code
• Physical layer - handles the transmission of bits over a
communications channel
– Includes voltage levels, connectors, media choice, modulation techniques
The TCP/IP Reference Model
 SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
There are different ways of sending data across the
network.

• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
In this technique complete physical connection is
established between 2 computers and then data are
transmitted from the source computer to the destination
computer. During the connection establishment, resources
are allocated between the caller and the callee.
 MESSAGE SWITCHING
Message switching systems are nowadays mostly implemented over PACKET
SWITCHING technique.
It works on store and forward principle.
When this form of switching is used, no physical path is established in advance in
between sender and receiver. Instead, when the sender has a block of data to be sent, it
is stored in the first switching office (i.e. router) then forwarded later at one packet at a
time.
A message is divided into small packets of fixed size. Each packet carries the address of
the destination
Each packet is processed individually by a router, all packets sent by a host to another
host are not guaranteed to use the same physical links. If the routing algorithm decides
to change the routing tables of the network between the instants two packets are sent,
then these packets will take different paths and can even arrive out of order.
 DATA COMMUNICATION TECHONOLOGY

Concept of Channel: Channel is the media of

transmission.
Baud: bits per second. It is the prevalent measure for data
transmission speed.
Data Transfer rate: It is the average number of bits,
characters, or blocks that can be moved from one place to
another in a given time usually in a second’s time in data
transmission system. (bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps, Tbps)
Bandwidth: In computer networks, bandwidth is often
used as a synonym for data transfer rate - the amount of
data that can be carried from one point to another in a given
time period (usually a second). This kind of bandwidth is
usually expressed in bits (of data) per second (bps).
Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower
cutoff frequencies and is often measured in Hertz (Hz,
KHz, MHz).
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