Electrical Machines

Induction
& Synchronous
 Magnetic Field Basic Characteristics
• Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted
from one form to another in motors, generators, and transformers.
• Four basic principles describe how magnetic fields are used in these devices:
I. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes
through that coil. (This is the basis of transformer action.) Faraday’s Law
3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force
induced on it. (This is the basis of motor action.) Flemings Left hand rule
4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it.
(This is the basis of generator action.) Flemings Right hand rule
Fleming's left-hand rule for electric motors
When current flows through a conducting wire, and an external magnetic
field is applied across that flow, the conducting wire experiences a force
perpendicular both to that field and to the direction of the current flow
(i.e they are mutually perpendicular) . A left hand can be held, as shown in
the illustration, so as to represent three mutually orthogonal axes on the
thumb, fore finger and middle finger. Each finger is then assigned to a
quantity (mechanical force, magnetic field and electric current). The right
and left hand are used for generators and motors respectively.
Fleming's Right-hand Rule for Generators
• shows the direction of induced current when a conductor attached to a circuit moves in a 
magnetic field. It can be used to determine the direction of current in a generator's windings.
• When a conductor such as a wire attached to a circuit moves through a magnetic field, an 
electric current is induced in the wire due to Faraday's law of induction. The current in the
wire can have two possible directions. Fleming's right-hand rule index finger and middle finger
 mutually perpendicular to each other (at right angles), as shown in the diagram.
• The thumb is pointed in the direction of the motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic
field.
• The first finger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field. (north to south)
• Then the second finger represents the direction of the induced or generated current within the
conductor (from the terminal with lower electric potential to the terminal with higher electric
potential, as in a voltage source)
Induction & Synchronous Machines – Motors & Generators
• Basic Difference : In Synchronous Machines the field (generally found in the rotor) is
supplied by an external DC supply. In Induction Machines the field (generally found
in the rotor windings) is supplied by magnetic Induction – “Transformer Action”
• Most Common Applications are : Induction Motors in the Industry due to the
following Characteristics-
1. Simple and Rugged Construction
2. Relatively Cheap
3. Requires very little maintenance
4. High Efficiency and reasonably good power factor
5. Has self starting torque.
• However it has the following disadvantages-
1. A constant speed motor and its sped can not be changed easily
2. Starting torque is inferior to dc shunt motors
Induction & Synchronous Machines – Motors & Generators

• Synchronous Generators or Alternators – because it produces ac voltages and

currents.
it has the following characteristics:
- A field winding in the rotor supplied by a dc voltage generally there can be a
pole pair known as a two pole winding or multiple pole pairs (i.e. 4, 6 or 8
Poles) which determines the synchronous speed of the rotor, the field winding
is also known as rotor winding.
- The rotor is driven by a prime mover: a diesel engine, a hydro turbine, a steam
turbine, a gas turbine etc.
- The stator or the stationary part is composed of a three phase winding
generally known as the stator winding or the Armature winding where the
voltage is produced ( induced by the magnet that rotates in the rotor –
generator action)
Synchronous Alternators
• Synchronous Alternators are very common in large power generating plants
• It requires a separate dc supply – either supplied by an external source or by a
suitable generator mounted on the same shaft supplying a dc voltage using a
brushless connection or a slip ring with carbon brushes – this is distinctly different to
dc machines having commutators and brushes
• Generally more expensive than its counterpart induction machines but very
convenient and accurate speed governing (controlling) can be achieved.
• Hence this is the preferred option where speed controlling can be achieved by
throttling the fuel or controlling the water flow to the turbine, however in variable
sources such as wind where the speed controlling of the prime move is difficult
induction generators are used also where small power sources are used such as mini
hydro stations due to cost and other considerations induction generators are used.
• It has very versatile use of being able to operate in either leading or lagging power
factors making it even more advantageous in large power systems.
Synchronous Motors
• Synchronous Motors are not so common but are used in certain cricumstances.
• They are inherently run at synchronous speeds at what ever loads within its
design rating.
• They operate at improved power factor of the system often synchronous motors
are run on no load simply to adjust the power factor of large power systems
known as synchronous condensers or syn-con mode.
• Synchronous motors are common in locomotives to keep the locos run at a
synchronized speed.
• Synchronous motors have no starting torque hence have to be started either by
using an external source or with a special arrangement called damper winding
which is a squirrel cage rotor mounted on the same shaft which first acts as an
induction motor until the synchronous speed is reached and then the rotor field
winding is supplied with a dc voltage to lock the rotor to the stator rotating
magnetic field.
Basic Principles of Electric Machine – rotating Magnetic Field
• When a three phase winding in a stator of an electric machine is supplied with a three
phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is produced.
• When three voltages displaced by 120˚ is supplied to the stator windings, a current will
flow in those windings giving rise to a magnetic flux Φ from all three phases and they
are represented by the following phasors:
Φ₁=Φmcos ωt
Φ2=Φmcos (ωt-120˚)
Φ3=Φmcos (ωt-240˚)
The resultant flux in one axis will be say
Φh= Φmcos ωt - Φmcos (ωt-120˚)Cos 60˚- Φmcos (ωt-240˚)Cos 60˚=3/2 Φmcos ωt
and in the other axis
Φv= 0- Φmcos (ωt-120˚)Sin 60˚- Φmcos (ωt-240˚)sin 60˚= - 3/2 Φm sin ωt
The resultant Flux Φr=1.5Φm ̷_ ωt
Basic Principles of Electric Machine – rotating Magnetic
Field
• And the frequency and speed of rotation of the magnetic flux is given by the
relation where nm is the speed of rotation of the magnetic field

• It is common to denote this as where ns is known as the

synchronous speed
• The following diagram shows the formation of the magnetic fields in a two
pole machine and a four pole machine.
The use of the rotating Magnetic Field in Electrical Machines
• This rotating magnetic field in the stator is the basic feature in electrical machines

– If one Magnetic field is produced by the stator of an ac machine and another is

produced by the rotor of the machine, then a torque will be induced in the rotor
which will cause the rotor to turn and align itself with the stator magnetic field.
The rotating magnetic field of the stator causes the induced torque of the rotor to
constantly “chase” the stator magnetic field around in a circle. This is the basic
principle of the motor. – Motor Action
or

-A rotating magnetic field of the rotor – externally driven by a prime mover will
cause a voltage to be induced in the stator which will also ‘rotate’ (fluctuate in a
sinusoidal form) in relation to the speed of the rotor. This is the basic principle of
the generator - Generator Action
UGC Regular
• September 20, 0830:1130
 Induction Motors
The Word Induction is used because the rotor field
voltage that creates a magnetic field for the rotor to
’chase’ the rotating magnetic field of the stator is induced
in the rotor by the same power supply that creates the
rotating magnetic field of the stator. Induction Machines
in principle can be used either as a generator or as a
motor but due to certain disadvantages of induction
generators over synchronous generators, they are used
only in special circumstances.
Induction Motor configurations - Two types:
• Squirrel Cage motors – most common but has certain limitations hence for
large applications this configuration is not very common – the rotor comprises
of copper bars embedded in a core and connected by a shorting ring on either
side of the rotor.
• Wound Rotor Motors - It has a complete set of three phase windings that are
mirror images of the windings on the stator. The three phases of the rotor
windings are usually Y connected and the ends of the three rotor wires are tied
to slip rings on the rotor shaft . The rotor windings are shorted through brushes
riding on the slip rings. Wound – rotor induction motors therefore have their
rotor currents accessible at the stator brushes , where they can be examined
and where resistances can be inserted into the rotor circuit . It is possible to
take advantage of this feature to modify the torque – speed characteristics of
the motor. Wound-rotor induction motors are more expensive than squirrel
cage induction motors, and they require much more maintenance because of
the wear associated with their brushes and slip rings.
Stator windings and a sketch of a Rotor of an
Induction Motor
Typical Diagrams of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors
Cutaway diagram of a typical small Cutaway diagram of a typical large squirrel cage
squirrel cage rotor induction motor. rotor induction motor.
A typical Squirrel Cage Rotor
Typical Wound Rotors for Induction
Motors
UGC Regular Intake
• September 21, 1030:1230
Cutaway diagram of a wound-rotor induction motor. Notice the
brushes and slip rings. Also notice that the rotor windings are
skewed to eliminate slot harmonics.
Basic Principles of Electric Machine – rotating Magnetic
Field
• And the frequency and speed of rotation of the magnetic flux is given by the
relation where nm is the speed of rotation of the magnetic field

• It is common to denote this as where ns is known as the

synchronous speed
• The following diagram shows the formation of the magnetic fields in a two
pole machine and a four pole machine.
The Development of an induced torque in an induction Motor:
The rotating stator field Bs induces a voltage in the rotor bars; the rotor voltage produces a rotor
current flow. which lags behind the voltage because of the inductance of the rotor; the rotor
current produces a rotor magnetic field BR lagging 90° behind itself and BR interacts with Bs
to produce a counter clockwise torque in the machine.
The Development of Induced Torque in an Induction Motor
• A three-phase set of voltages when applied to the stator, a three-phase set of
stator currents flow producing a magnetic field Bs, which is rotating in a counter
clockwise direction. The speed of the magnetic field's rotation is given by

• where fe is the system frequency in hertz and P is the number of poles in the
machine. This rotating magnetic field Bs passes over the rotor bars and induces a
voltage in them.
• There is a finite upper limit to the motor's speed, however. If the induction
motor's rotor were turning at synchronous speed, then the rotor bars would be
stationary relative to the magnetic field and there would be no induced voltage.
• If the induced voltage is equal to 0, then there would be no rotor current and no
rotor magnetic field.
The Development of Induced Torque in an Induction
Motor
Cont...
• With no rotor magnetic field, the induced torque would be zero, and the rotor
would slow down as a result of friction losses. An induction motor can thus
speed up to near-synchronous speed, but it can never exactly reach
synchronous speed.
• Note that in normal operation both the rotor and stator magnetic fields BR
and Bs rotate together at synchronous speed nsync while the rotor itself turns at
a slower speed.
Rotor Slip
• The voltage induced in a rotor bar of an induction motor depends on the speed of the
rotor relative to the magnetic fields.
• slip speed, is defined as the difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed:

Where:
- nslip = slip speed of the machine
- nsync = speed of the magnetic fields
- nm = mechanical shaft speed of motor and
Slip is defined by the equations:

and
The Electrical Frequency on the Rotor
• An induction motor works by inducing voltages and currents in the rotor of the machine, and
for that reason it has sometimes been called a rotating transformer.
• Like a transformer, the primary (stator) induces a voltage in the secondary (rotor), but unlike
a transformer, the secondary frequency is not necessarily the same as the primary frequency.
• If the rotor of a motor is locked so that it cannot move, then the rotor will have the same
frequency as the stator. On the other hand, if the rotor turns at synchronous speed, the
frequency on the rotor will be zero.
• At nm = 0 rpm, the rotor frequency fr = fe, and the slip s = I.
• At nm = nsync , the rotor frequency fr = 0 Hz, and the slip s = 0.
- For any speed in between, the rotor frequency is directly proportional to the difference
between the speed of the magnetic field nsync and the speed of the rotor nm.
• Hence
The Electrical Frequency on the Rotor
• Cont…
and we know

Since

Then

We know:

And Hence

Therefore
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR
• The Transformer Model of the Induction Motor The turns Ratio is represented as
aeff
The Rotor Circuit Model
In an induction motor, when the voltage is applied to the stator windings, a voltage
is induced in the rotor windings of the machine, In general, the greater the
relative motion between the rotor and the stator magnetic fields, the greater the
resulting rotor voltage and rotor frequency,
The largest relative motion occurs when the rotor is stationary, called the locked-
rotor or blocked-rotor condition, so the largest voltage and rotor frequency are
induced in the rotor at that condition, The smallest voltage (0 V) and frequency (0
Hz) occur when the rotor moves at the same speed as the stator magnetic field,
resulting in no relative motion,
The magnitude and frequency of the voltage induced in the rotor at any speed
between these extremes is directly proportional to the slip of the rotor,
Therefore, if the magnitude of the induced rotor voltage at locked-rotor
conditions is called ER0 the magnitude of the induced voltage at any slip will be
given by the equation
The Rotor Circuit Model
• the frequency of the induced voltage at any slip will be given by the equation

And the rotor equivalent circuit is:

Where and

And the current is: and hence

Final Equivalent Circuit
• We know: It follows: and

The Final Equivalent Circuit becomes

Power Conversion in the Induction Motor across the Air Gap
• The total Power of the Induction Motor is consumed in the following:
- Stator Copper loss
- Core loss
- Rotor Copper loss
- Friction and windage loss
- stray loss
• Finally the balance power is converted to Mechanical Power.
Power Conversion in the Induction Motor across the Air Gap
• Air Gap Power – it is only converted in the Rotor Resistor
• Hence:
• The Power loss in the Rotor Circuit is: or
• Using the Ideal Transformer model
• After stator copper losses, core losses and rotor copper losses are subtracted
from the input power to the motor, the remaining power is converted from
electrical to mechanical form. The power converted, which is called developed
mechanical power is given as:
Power Conversion in the Induction Motor : effect of Slip
• From the above equations as and
• The rotor copper losses are equal to the air gap power times the slip PRCL = s PAG
• The lower the slip of the motor, the lower the rotor losses. Hence it is desirable
for the induction motors to run at low slip.
• If the rotor is not turning, the slip s=1 and the air gap power is entirely consumed
in the rotor, if the rotor is not turning, the output power Pout (= τload ωm) must be
zero.
• Since Pconv = PAG – PRCL , this also gives another relationship between the air-gap
power and the power converted from electrical and mechanical form:
Resultant Torque and Power of an Induction Motor
• Finally, if the friction and windage losses and the stray losses are known, the
output power:

• The induced torque in a machine is the torque generated by the internal

electric to mechanical power conversion. This torque differs from the torque
actually available at the terminals of the motor by an amount equal to the
friction and windage torques in the machine. Hence, the developed torque is:

It Follows: as
Torque Speed Characteristics of an Induction Motor
• Torque Speed Characteristics of an Induction Motor is very important as in many
applications most of the motors start with a load hence the starting torque should
be more than the full load torque.
• It is a tedious process to derive the full range of torque – speed characteristic
relationships.
• Generally at the start there is a high torque developed by the machine then the
machine accelerates up to a point (catching up with the rotating magnetic field of
the stator then the speed and torque of the machine both increase reaching a point
called “break down torque “ which is the maximum torque the machine is capable
of reaching then the machine increases the speed until full load rating is reached at
which point full load power is deliverable. There after if the load is reduced in the
machine the machine will speed up until very close to synchronous speed and if the
speed of the machine is now increased by an external prime mover, then the
machine is able to cross the synchronous speed and go into generation mode
Induction Motor Torque Speed Curve
a) Induced Torque is zero at synchronous speed.
b) The graph is nearly linear between
no load and full load (at near synchronous speeds).
c) Max torque is known as pull out torque or
breakdown torque
d) Starting torque is large.
e) Torque for a given slip value would change to
the square of the applied voltage.
f) If the rotor were driven faster than synchronous
speed, the motor would then become a
generator. S<0
g) If we reverse the direction of the stator
magnetic field i.e nm <0, and s>1, it would act as a
braking action to the rotor –plugging.
Torque Speed Characteristics of an Induction Motor
Graphical development of an induction
motor torque-speed characteristic.
(a) Plot of rotor current (and thus IBRI) versus speed for
an induction motor;
(b) plot of net magnetic field versus speed for the motor;
(c) plot of rotor power factor versus speed for the
motor;
(d) the resulting torque-speed characteristic
Torque Speed Characteristics of an Induction Motor
• A typical Torque – speed characteristic of an induction Motor
Variations in Induction Motor Torque-Speed Characteristics