CHAPTER 2 – THE OPEN

SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION
(OSI) MODEL AND NETWORK
PROTOKOL
Learning outcome
Network Communications:
Describe the purpose of the OSI Model
and each of its layers.
Define specific functions belonging to
each OSI Model layer
Explain how two network nodes
communicate through the OSI Model
Purpose of the OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is
a reference tool for understanding data
communications between any two networked
systems. It divides the communications processes
into SEVEN layers. Each layer performs specific
functions to support the layers above it and offers
services to the layers below it. The three lowest
layers focus on passing traffic through the network
to an end system. The top four layers come into
play in the end system to complete the process.
Purpose of the OSI Model
The OSI model is set of 7 layers that defines the different stages that data
must go through to transfer from source to destination on any network of
the world.
The OSI Model
• ISO is the International Organization for
Standardization.
• ISO developed a standard model for
communications, called the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) Model.
• Enable computer platforms across the
world to communicate openly.
The OSI Model
• OSI Model describes how data flows from one
computer through a network to another
computer
• A task is then assigned to each of the SEVEN
OSI layer
• Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that
the task assigned to each layer can be
implemented.
2. Define specific functions
belonging to each OSI Model layer
The OSI Model (continued)
Application Layer
• Services communicate between software programs
and lower-layer network services
• N/W function such as File, print, message, database,
and application services
• Application Program : Browser, Search Engines,
Email Program etc.
• TCP/IP Protocol : Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet etc.
The OSI Model (continued)
Presentation Layer
• Protocols at the Presentation layer accept Application layer
data and format it
• Serves as a translator and are the standards which are
involved in multimedia
• Presentation layer protocols perform the coding, compression
and also manage data encryption and decryption
• Example : Text encoding methods ASCII and BCD,
Compression methods like JPEG and MP3
• TCP/IP Protocol : Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
(MIME), Secure Socket Layer (SSL), Transport Layer
Security (TLS).
The OSI Model (continued)
Session Layer
• Protocols in the Session layer coordinate and maintain
communications between two nodes
• Session refers to a connection for ongoing data
exchange between two parties
• Example : Video and audio streams for a video
session, Upload or download file session.
• TCP/IP Protocol : Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP), Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), Real-time
Transport Protocol (RTP).
The OSI Model (continued)
Session Layer (continued)
• Session layer’s functions are establishing and keeping alive
the communications link for the duration of the session
 Keep the communication secure
 Synchronizing the dialog between the two nodes
 Determining whether communications have been cut off, and, if
so, figuring out where to restart transmission and terminating
communications
The OSI Model (continued)

Transport Layer
• Protocols in the Transport layer accept data from the
Session layer and manage end to-end delivery
• Ensures that the data is transferred from point A to
point B reliably, in the correct sequence, and without
errors
• Breaking large data units received from Session layer
into multiple smaller units called segments
• Segment ( Source and Destination Port Number)
• TCP/IP Protocol : Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
The OSI Model (continued)
Transport Layer (continued)
• Without Transport layer services, data could not be verified
or interpreted by its recipient
• Handles flow control
• Some Transport layer protocols take steps to ensure that data
arrives exactly as it was sent.
• TCP is one example of a connection-oriented protocol
 Three Step Process
• Request (Client sends)
• Acknowledgment (ACK)
• Client Acknowledgement (ACK)
• Sequencing
 Identifying segments that belong to the same group
o Checksum: method of error checking
The OSI Model (continued)
Layer 3 – Network
Function :
Routes packets according to unique
network device addresses.(IP Address or
Logical Address)
Packet ( Source and Destination IP
Address)
The OSI Model (continued)
Network Layer
• Primary function of protocols at the Network layer
 Translate network addresses
 Decide how to route data
• Network layer addresses
 Also called logical addresses or virtual addresses
• Routers belong in the Network layer
• Perform Fragmentation
• Network Devices : Router
• TCP/IP Protocol - Internet Protocol (IP), Internet
Protocol Security (IPsec), etc.
The OSI Model (continued)
Data Link Layer
 Primary function of protocols is to divide data into
distinct frames that can then be transmitted by the
Physical layer
 Network Devices : Switch and Bridge.
 TCP/IP Protocol : Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), Serial
Line Internet Protocol (SLIP), etc
 IEEE has divided the Data Link layer into two sublayers
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The OSI Model (continued)
The OSI Model (continued)
Physical Layer
 Lowest, or first, layer of the OSI Model
 Example : Twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber,
wireless, or other transmission media.
 Network Device : Hub and Repeater,
Cable(Straight/cross)
 Protocols at the Physical layer
 Accept frames from the Data Link layer
 Generate voltage so as to transmit signals
 Receiving data detect voltage and accept signals
 Pass on to the Data Link layer
The OSI Model (continued)
 Moving Data

End
End System
System
Summary of the OSI Model
Layer Description
Applying The OSI Model
Peer-to-Peer Communication
 Applying The OSI Model
C o m m unication between two syste m
• At each layer of the OSI Model, some information is added
to the original data
OSI Model

TWO network nodes communicate through

the OSI Model
A message begins at the top
application layer and moves down the
OSI layers to the bottom physical
layer.
As the message descends, each
successive OSI model layer adds a
header to it.
A header is layer-specific information
that basically explains what functions
the layer carried out.
Conversely, at the receiving end,
headers are striped from the message
as it travels up the corresponding
layers.
Data packets and frames.
 In information technology, a packet is a formatted block of data carried
by a packet mode computer network. Computer communications links
that do not support packets, such as traditional point-to-point
telecommunications links, simply transmit data as a series of bytes,
characters, or bits alone. When data is formatted into packets, the
bitrate of the communication medium can better be shared among users
than if the network would have been circuit switched. By using packet
switched networking it is also harder to guarantee a lowest possible
bitrate.
 In computer networking, a frame is a data packet of fixed or variable
length which has been encoded by a data link layer communications
protocol for digital transmission over a node-to-node link. Each frame
consists of a header frame synchronization and perhaps bit
synchronization, payload (useful information, or a packet at higher
protocol layer) and trailer. Examples are Ethernet frames and Point-to-
point protocol (PPP) frames.
Two types of addressing covered by the
OSI Model.
 OSI utilize 2 types of addressing scheme for networking. First is MAC
address. Second logical address (exp IP address).
 MAC address
 A MAC address, sometimes referred to as a hardware address or physical
address, is an ID code that’s assigned to a network adapter or any device
with built-in networking capability (say, a printer). While an IP address can
potentially be assigned to any device, a MAC address is “burned in” to a
given device from the factory. A MAC address takes the form of six pairs
of hexadecimal digits, usually separated by colons or dashes, and will look
something like this—[Link]. (Hexadecimal digits can only
include the numbers 0-9 and letters A-F.)
 MC address of a device cannot be change by user but can be spoofed or
rewrite with the correct tool (usually own by the manufacturer). The MAC
or Ethernet address is associated with Layer 2 (data Link) of the OSI
Model
Logical address
 The logical address is a 32-bit IP address that is not embedded in
the network card but it is assigned to it for the purpose of routing
between networks. This type of address operates at Layer 3
(network) of the OSI Model. The Internet Protocol (IP), in
combination with Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), forms the
TCP/IP suite, which is the de facto protocol (i.e., universal
computer language) that connects the network of networks – that is,
the Internet.
Learning outcome
Understand a Local Wired Network
Explain the MAC address of a Host using
ipconfig / all command.
Relate a standard IEEE 802.3 Ethernet
Frame based on a given source and
destination devices.
Identify logical address of a computer.
Identify IP address of a computer.
Network Communication
Host MAC Address
Network Communication
Host MAC Address
Network Communication
Local Wired Network Ethernet 802.3
Frame Structure
Network Communication
Preamble (PRE) consists of :
-7 bytes of preamble with the form
10101010, and is used by the receiver to
allow it to establish bit synchronisation
Start-of-frame delimiter (SOF)
- 1 byte of with pattern of ones and zeros,
ending with two consecutive 1-bits
(10101011) which is a frame flag,
indicating the start of a frame.
Network Communication
Destination address (DA)-
6 bytes – Is the Destination MAC Address
field which identifies which station(s)
shoul
d receive the frame

Source addresses (SA)-

6 bytes. Is the Source MAC Address field
which identifies the sending station.
Network Communication
Length/Type-
2 bytes -This length of data bytes that are
contained in the data field of the frame
Data-
Is a sequence of n bytes (46=< n =<1500)
of any value. (The total frame minimum is
64bytes.)
0 bits added to the data field if there are
fewer than 46 bytes of data in that field.
Network Communication
Frame check sequence (FCS)-
4 bytes. The extra checksum characters
added to a frame in a communication
protocol for error detection and
correction. Detects transmission errors
and provides quality of service at
receiving end
Network Communication
Local Wired Network Computer
Addressing Types Physical address
•also known as the link address
•It is included in the frame used by the data
link layer.
•Ethernet, CSMACD/CA, Token Bus,
Token Ring , Distributed Queue Dual Bus
(DQDB), Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI).
Network Communication
LocalWired Network Computer
Addressing Types
NETWORK
COMMUNICATION
Local Wired Network Computer
Addressing Types Logical address
•also known as the IP address
•currently a 32-bit address that can uniquely
define a host connected to the Internet.
•No two publicly addressed and visible
hosts on the Internet can have the same IP
address.
Network Communication
Logical address
•Each device (computer or router) has a pair
of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection.
•Each computer is connected to only one
link and therefore has only one pair of
addresses.
LocalWired Network Computer
Addressing Types
Learning outcome
Identify Internet Service Provider (ISPs)
Describe the relationship between ISP
and internet
Explain the importance of the internet
protocols (IP)
Explain the packets travel through the
internet by using ping and traceroute
INTERNET CONNECTION
THROUGH ISP
Explain what the internet is
 The Internet is a worldwide collection of computer networks, cooperating
with each other to exchange information using common standards.
Through telephone wires, fiber optic cables, wireless transmissions and
satellite links, Internet users can exchange information in a variety of
forms.
 A system of interconnected computers that share [Link] are
different ways to share information over the [Link] world wide
web(www) is just one of them
 The Internet is a network of networks that connects users in
every country in the world. There are currently over one billion
Internet users worldwide.
 Internet Service Providers(ISPs)
 Any home, business or organization that wants to connect to the Internet must
use an Internet Service Provider (ISP). An ISP is a company that provides the
connections and support to access the Internet. It can also provide additional
services such as Email and web hosting.

 ISPs range in size from small to very large and differ in terms of the area
they service. ISPs may provide limited services to a small geographical area
or can have a wide variety of services and support entire countries with
millions of customers. ISPs also differ in the types of connection
technologies and speeds they offer. Examples of well known ISPs include
AOL, EarthLink, and Roadrunner.
Function :ISP
The function of an Internet service provider
is simply to provide Internet service to
those who need Internet service. Internet
service providers or ISP's, may offer dial-
up or broadband service to consumers.
How does an ISP Work
 Login into the ISP using the user information provided to you by your ISP. Here, you
enter the username, password and telephone number of the ISP.
 Once the ISP receives your information in its modem pool, it verifies if you are an
authentic user or not.
 Once the user authentication process is done, the ISP provides you with a dynamic IP
address using the DHCP.
 If you have bought a static IP from your ISP, then this step is not required. However,
buying a static IP will cost you a lot.
 Now, you are allowed to browse any web page through your web browser. When you
type in the name of the URL on the address bar, you are actually requesting for the
IP address of the server machine, that holds those web pages.
 The information is received at the modem pool. Once this information is received,
the ISP connects the subscriber to the modem pool.
 The requested server machine is reached through an array of dedicated lines and
routers.
 Once the ISP finds the required IP address, it transfers the requested web pages to the
source IP address.
Internet Service Provider in
Malaysia
 Jaring
 TMNet Dail Up
 TMnet Streamyx
 TMNet Unifi
 Maxis Broadband
 Celcom Broadband
 Umobile
 Digi Broadband
 P1 access
 Yes 4G Mobile
 RedTone
 iZZi
 PenangFON
The ISPs Relationship With the Internet
 Individual computers and local networks connect to the ISP at a Point of Presence
(POP). A POP is the connection point between the ISP's network and the particular
geographical region that the POP is servicing.

 An ISP may have many Pops depending on its size and the area it services. Within an
ISP, a network of high-speed routers and switches move data between the various
Pops. Multiple links interconnect the Pops to provide alternate routes for the data
should one link fail or become overloaded with traffic and congested.
 ISPs connect to other ISPs in order to send information beyond the boundaries of their
own network. The Internet is made up of very high-speed data links that interconnect
ISP Pops and ISPs to each other. These interconnections are part of the very large, high
capacity network known as the Internet Backbone.

 Connecting to the ISP at the POP provides users with access to the ISP's services and
the Internet.
Sending Information Across the Internet
Traceroute
◦ Traces the route from source to destination.
◦ Displays each hop along the way and the time
it takes for each one
How to Use the Traceroute Command
 Traceroute is a command which can show you the path
a packet of information takes from your computer to one
you specify. It will list all the routers it passes through
until it reaches its destination, or fails to and is
discarded. In addition to this, it will tell you how long
each 'hop' from router to router takes.
 In Windows, select Start > Programs > Accessories >
Command Prompt. This will give you a window like the
one below.
 Enter the word tracert, followed by a space, then the
domain name.
 The following is a successful traceroute from a home
computer in New Zealand to [Link]:
How to Use the Traceroute Command
 Firstly it tells you that it's tracing the route to [Link], tells you the IP
address of that domain, and what the maximum number of hops will be before it
times out.
Next it gives information about each router it passes through on the way to its
destination.
1 is the internet gateway on the network this traceroute was done from (an ADSL
modem in this case)
2 is the ISP the origin computer is connected to ([Link])
3 is also in the xtra network
4 timed out
5 - 9 are all routers on the [Link] network (the domain that is the internet
gateway out of New Zealand)
10 - 14 are all [Link] in the USA (a telecom supplier in the USA)
15 - 17 are on the nac network (Net Access Corporation, an ISP in the New York area)
18 is a router on the network [Link] is hosted on
and finally, line
19 is the computer [Link] is hosted on ([Link])
How to Use the Traceroute Command
Each of the 3 columns are a response from that router, and
how long it took (each hop is tested 3 times). For
example, in line 2, the first try took 240ms (240
milliseconds), the second took 421 ms, and the third
took 70ms.
You will notice that line 4 'timed out', that is, there was no
response from the router, so another one was tried
([Link]) which was successful.
You will also notice that the time it took quadrupled
while passing through the global-gateway network.
How to Use the Traceroute Command
 This is extremely useful when trying to find out why a website is
unreachable, as you will be able to see where the connection fails. If
you have a website hosted somewhere, it would be a good idea to do a
traceroute to it when it is working, so that when it fails, you can do
another traceroute to it (which will probably time out if the website is
unreachable) and compare them. Be aware though, that it will
probably take a different route each time, but the networks it passes
through will generally be very similar.
If the example above had continued to time out after line 9, you could
suspect that [Link] was the problem, and not
[Link].
If it timed out after line 1, you would know there was a problem
connecting to your ISP (in this case you would not be able to access
anything on the internet).
 It is generally recommended that if you have a website that is
unreachable, you should use both the traceroute and ping commands
before you contact your ISP to complain. More often that not, there
will be nothing to your ISP or hosting company can do about it.
NETWOR K SERVICES
2.5 Understand Network Services
Define Domain Name Service (DNS)
Use ping command, a browser and
nslookup to identify the relationship
between domain names and IP addresses.
Implement DNS in a LAN.
Describe relationship between Web
Clients and servers.
Define Domain Name Service
(DNS)
 Network use IP address to identify the host.
 Number can hard to remember compare to name.
 DNS is naming system to assign name to host (host

name) and domain

 The name given usually describe the device/domain.
 Domain is a group computer that usually belong to a

the same organization.

Define Domain Name Service
(DNS)
 Domain name for use in internet must be registered
and controlled by ICANN
 Domain name is unique. No two same domain name

can exist in the same network or segment.

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Use ping command, a browser and nslookup to identify the
relationship between domain names and IP addresses.

 Ping – can use to test for response from

the host/site
 Ping can use with IP address and also the
host name.
Use ping command, a browser and nslookup to identify the
relationship between domain names and IP addresses.

Nslookup – can use to determine the host name

if the IP is known or IP address if the host name
is known.
Implement DNS in a LAN.
Describe relationship between Web Clients
and servers.
 Web server can refer to either the hardware (the
computer) or the software (the computer application) that
helps to deliver content that can be accessed through the
Internet.
 Web client can refer to either the hardware (the
computer) or the software (the computer application)
that helps to access the content of a Web server
DNS
 The Domain Name System (DNS) provides a way
for hosts to use this name to request the IP address of
a specific server.

 DNS names are registered and organized on the

Internet within specific high level groups, or
domains.

 Some of the most common high level domains on

the Internet are .com, .edu, and .net.
 A DNS server contains a table that associates hostnames in a
domain with corresponding IP addresses.

 When a client has the name of server, such as a web server, but
needs to find the IP address, it sends a request to the DNS
server on port 53. The client uses the IP address of the DNS
server configured in the DNS settings of the host's IP
configuration.

 When the DNS server receives the request, it checks its table to
determine the IP address associated with that web server. If the
local DNS server does not have an entry for the requested
name, it queries another DNS server within the domain.

 When the DNS server learns the IP address, that information is

sent back to the client. If the DNS server cannot determine the
IP address, the request will time out and the client will not be
able to communicate with the web server.
Web Clients and Web Servers
 When a web client receives the IP address of a web server,
the client browser uses that IP address and
port 80 to request web services. This request is sent to the
server using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

 When the server receives a port 80 request, the server

responds to the client request and sends the web page to
the client.
Objectives
Understand Domain Name Service
(DNS).
Learn the relationship between Web
Clients and Web Server.
Learn the relationship between FTP
clients and server.
Understand email protocols in clients and
server : SMTP, POP3 and IMAP4.
 FTP Clients and Servers
 The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) provides an easy method to
transfer files from one computer to another.
 A host running FTP client software can access an FTP server
to perform various file management functions including file
uploads and downloads.
 The FTP server enables a client to exchange files between
devices.
 To accomplish this, the FTP service uses two different ports to
communicate between client and server.
 Requests to begin an FTP session are sent to the server using
destination port 21. Once the session is opened, the server will
change to port 20 to transfer the data files.
 FTP client software is built into computer operating systems
and into most web browsers.

FTP animation (Chapter 6)

 Email Clients and Servers
 Email is one of the most popular client/server
applications on the Internet. Email servers run server
software that enables them to interact with clients and
with other email servers over the network.

 Each mail server receives and stores mail for users

who have mailboxes configured on the mail server.
Each user with a mailbox must then use an email client
to access the mail server and read these messages.

 Various application protocols used in processing email

include SMTP, POP3, IMAP4.
Email Clients and Servers (cont.)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

 SMTP is used by an email client to send messages to its

local email server. The local server then decides if the
message is destined for a local mailbox or if the message
is addressed to a mailbox on another server.

 If
the server has to send the message to a different server,
SMTP is used between the two servers as well.

 SMTP requests are sent to port 25.

 Email Clients and Servers (cont.)

Post Office Protocol (POP3)

 A serverthat supports POP clients receives and stores

messages addressed to its users.

 When the client connects to the email server, the messages

are downloaded to the client. By default, messages are not
kept on the server after they have been accessed by the
client.

 Clients contact POP3 servers on port 110.

Email Clients and Servers (cont.)
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP4)

A server that supports IMAP clients also receives and

stores messages addressed to its users. However, it keeps
the messages in the mailboxes on the server, unless they
are deleted by the user.

 The most current version of IMAP is IMAP4 which listens

for client requests on port 143.
Instant Messaging
 Instant Messaging (IM) is one of the most popular
communication tools in use today.
 IM software is run locally on each computer and allows users
to communicate or chat over the Internet in real-time.
 Many different IM applications are available from various
companies. Each instant messaging service can use a
different protocol and destination port, so two hosts must
have compatible IM software installed for them to
communicate.
 IM applications require minimal configuration to operate.
Once the client is downloaded all that is required is to enter
username and password information. This allows the IM
client to authenticate to the IM network.
 Once logged into the server, clients can send messages to
other clients in real-time.
Port Numbers
 Ports are broken into three categories and range in number from 1 to 65,535.
Ports are assigned and managed by an organization known as the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).

Well- K nown Ports

 Destination ports that are associated with common network applications are
identified as well-known ports. These ports are in the range of 1 to 1023.

Registered Ports
 Ports 1024 through 49151 can be used as either source or destination ports.
These can be used by organizations to register specific applications such as
IM applications.

Private Ports
 Ports 49152 through 65535, often used as source ports. These ports can be
used by any application.
 Applying The OSI Model (continued)

Frame Specifications

• Two major categories of frame types

 Ethernet
• developed at X erox in the early 1 970s

 Token Ring
• developed by IBM in the 1980s
Learning outcome
2.5 Apply email client server
2.6 Apply Addressing Schemes for
TCP/IP suite
Addressing Schemes
 IP Address
An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a
unique number, used by computers to refer to
each other when sending information through
the Internet.
Represented by a 32-bit binary number written
as four octets.
Octet (8 bits) ● Octet (8 bits) ● Octet (8 bits) ● Octet (8 bits)
22222222 ●22222222 ●22222222 ●2 2222222
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

11000000 ● 00000101 ● 00100010 ● 00001011

EQUALS
192 ● 5 ● 34 ● 11
IP Address (cont.)
The maximum decimal value of each octet is
255.
Those bits, from left to right, have decimal
values of 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1. Added, they
total 255.
The largest 8-bit binary number is 11111111.
An IP address has a network number and a host
number, and uses dotted-decimal notation.
 Class A
Support extremely large networks
First octet of Class A IP address recognize with
range 1 to 127. ([Link]
( network, is reserved for
loop back addresses.)
Class A IP addresses use only the first 8 bits (1
octet) to identify the network part of the address.
The remaining three octets (24 bit) can be used for
the host portion of the address.
Example of Class A IP address : [Link]
Class B
Support the needs of moderate to large sized
networks.
Class B IP network addresses always have
values ranging from 128 to 191.
Class B IP addresses use the first 16 bits (2
octets) to identify the network part of the
address.
The two remaining octets of the IP address can
be used for the host portion of the address.
Example of Class B IP address: [Link]
Class C
This address space was intended to support a
small network.
Class C IP network addresses always have
values ranging from 192 to 223.
Class C IP addresses use the first 24 bits (3
octets) to identify the network part of the
address.
Only the last octet of a Class C IP address can
be used for the host portion of the address.
Example of a Class C IP address :
[Link]
 Public and Private IP Address
A private IP Address
 Is a network where only authorized users have access to
the data.
 IP address are assigned by the administrator
 Use the addresses reserved
Public and Private IP Address

Public IP Address
All hosts that connect directly to the
Internet require a unique public IP
address.
Unicast, Multicast and
Broadcast Addresses
Unicast Address
UNICAST
The sending of information packets to a
single destination.
A packet with a unicast destination
address is intended for a specific host.
The IP address and MAC address
combine to deliver data to one specific
destination host.
Broadcast Address
Broadcast Address
 The packet contains a destination IP address with all
ones (1s) in the host portion.
 This means that all hosts on that local network
(broadcast domain) will receive and look at the
packet.
 A Class B network of [Link], with a default mask
of [Link], has a broadcast of [Link].
 On Ethernet networks, the broadcast MAC address is
48 ones displayed as Hexadecimal FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-
FF.
 Many network protocols, such as ARP and DHCP use
broadcasts.
 Transmitting a packet that will be received by every
device on the network
Multicast Address
 Multicast addresses allow a source device to send a
packet to a group of devices.
 Devices that belong to a multicast group are assigned a
multicast group IP address. The range of multicast
addresses is from [Link] to [Link].
 Since multicast addresses represent a group of addresses
(sometimes called a host group), they can only be used as
the destination of a packet. The source will always have a
unicast address.
 The multicast MAC address is a special value that begins
with 01-00-5E in hexadecimal.
 Examples of where multicast addresses would be used
are in remote gaming, where many players are connected
remotely but playing the same game. Another example
would be distance learning through video conferencing,
where many students are connected to the same class.
H ow IP Addresses are O b tained :
Static and Dynamic Address
Assi g nment
Static
Manually configure the network
information for a host.
Its includes the host IP address, subnet
mask and default gateway.
Useful for printers, servers and other
networking devices that need to be
accessible to clients on the network.
Dynamic
 IP addresses assigned automatically and it is done using a
protocol known as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP).

 DHCP automatic assignment of addressing information such as

IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and other
configuration information.

DHCP advantages :
 DHCP is generally the preferred method of assigning IP
addresses to hosts on large networks since it reduces the
burden on network support staff and virtually eliminates entry
errors.
 Another benefit of DHCP is that an address is not permanently
assigned to a host but is only leased for a period of time. If the
host is powered down or taken off the network, the address is
returned to the pool for reuse.
 END
CHAPTER 2