Fluid Mechanics

(EMEg)

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID MECHANICS

Lecture-1
Lidiya A.

2023
 Outline

 Introduction to fluid mechanics

 What is Fluid
 Applications of fluid mechanics
 Important fluid properties
 Classifications of fluid flow
 Types of fluid
 Dimensions
 Lesson objectives
 At the end of the lesson students will be able to:
 Define a fluid
 Understand important properties of fluid
 Understand the various categories of fluid flow
 Know the different between ideal vs real and Newtonian vs
non-Newtonian fluids
 Know dimensions of variables which are important in fluid
mechanics
 Question of the Day
1) Can you list an area which is not application area of fluid mechanics?
2) How can we obtain density of any fluid if specific gravity of that
liquid is given?
3) What do we mean by No-Slip condition?
4) Why is water easily flows than oil?
5) Why is a water droplet has spherical shape?
6) What allows small insects to walk on a water surface without sinking?
7) What is the phenomenon a liquid wet a solid object?
8) What do we mean by Ideal fluid? And Is it possible to get an ideal
fluid in practice/ real life?
9) What are the dimensions of density(, specific weight (), viscosity (),
shear stress (), surface tension ()….
 Introduction to fluid mechanics
 Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both
stationary and moving bodies tinder the influence of forces.
 The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called
statics,
 The branch that deals with bodies in motion is called
dynamics.
 The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals
with the behavior of fluids at rest {fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at
the boundaries.
 The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics.
 The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces:
o are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and
o are also considered, is called fluid dynamics.
 Cont…
 Fluid dynamics itself is also divided into several categories.
 Hydrodynamics: the study of the motion of fluids that are
practically incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and
gases at low speeds) is usually referred to as hydrodynamics.
 Gas dynamics: deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant
density changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high
speeds.
 The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases
(especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and
automobiles at high or low speeds.
Cont…
 What is a Fluid?

 A substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid, and gas.

 A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid.

 Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis of the

substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress
that tends to change its shape.
 A solid can resist an applied shear stress; for maximum stress it
deforms to some extent
 whereas a fluid deforms continuously under the influence of
shear stress, no matter how small the shear stress is.
 In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress is
proportional to strain rate.
Cont…
 When a constant shear
force is applied, a solid
eventually stops
deforming, at some
fixed strain angle,

 whereas a fluid never

stops deforming and
approaches a certain rate
of strain. Figure.
Deformation of a rubber eraser placed
between two parallel plates under the
influence of a shear force.
Cont…

Differences between liquid and gases

Liquid Gases
 Difficult to compress and  Easily to compress - changes of
often regarded as volume is large, cannot normally be
incompressible neglected and are related to
temperature
 Occupies a fixed volume and No fixed volume, it changes
will take the shape of the volume to expand to fill the
container containing vessels

 A free surface is formed if  Completely fill the vessel so that no

the volume of container is free surface is formed.
greater than the liquid.
 Cont…
 In a liquid, molecules can move relative to
each other, but the volume remains
relatively constant because of the strong
cohesive forces between the molecules.
 As a result, a liquid takes the shape
of the container it is in, and it forms
a free surface in a larger container
in a gravitational field.
 A gas, on the other hand, expands until it
encounters the walls of the container and
fills the entire available space.
 This is because the gas molecules
are widely spaced, and the cohesive
forces between them arc very small.
 Unlike liquids, gases cannot form a
free surface
 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
 The number of fluid engineering applications are enormous: breathing, blood
flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes, ships, rivers, windmills,
pipes, missiles, icebergs, engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few.
 Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas of engineering and
science. Examples are:
Biomechanics
 Blood flow through arteries and veins
 Airflow in the lungs
 Flow of cerebral fluid
Households
 Piping systems for cold water, natural gas, and sewage
 Piping and ducting network of heating and air-conditioning
systems
 refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, dish washer, washing machine, water
meter, natural gas meter, air conditioner, radiator, etc.
Meteorology and Ocean Engineering
 Movements of air currents and water currents
 Cont…
Mechanical Engineering
 Design of pumps, turbines, air-conditioning equipment, pollution-
control equipment, etc.
 Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets, jet
engines, wind turbines, biomedical devices, the cooling of electronic
components, and the transportation of water, crude oil, and natural
gas.
Civil Engineering
 Design of piping systems
 Flood control systems
 Transport of river sediments
 Pollution of air and water
Chemical Engineering
 Design of chemical processing equipment
 Cont…
Turbomachines: pump, turbine, fan, blower, propeller, etc.
Military: Missile, aircraft, ship, underwater vehicle, dispersion of
chemical agents, etc.
Automobile: IC engine, air conditioning, fuel flow, external
aerodynamics, etc.
Medicine: Heart assist device, artificial heart valve, Lab-on-a-Chip
device, glucose monitor, controlled drug delivery, etc.
Electronics: Convective cooling of generated heat.
Energy: wind turbine, boiler, combustor, burner, and, etc.
Oil and Gas: Pipeline, pump, valve, offshore rig, oil spill cleanup, etc.
Cont…

Almost everything in our world is either in contact

with a fluid (moves within or near a fluid) or is itself
a fluid.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
 Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V,
and mass m.
 Other less familiar properties include viscosity, thermal conductivity,
modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric
resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.
Cont…
1. Density or Mass Density
 Density or mass density is defined as the mass occupied by the fluid
per unit volume at a given state of fluid.
• Thus density is mass per unit volume of a fluid.
• It is denoted the symbol (rho).
 Mathematically:
• The unit of mass density in SI unit is .
 The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of
gases changes with the variation of pressure and temperature.

 The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3 at 1 atm

and
Cont…
 The density of a substance, in general, depends on temperature and
pressure.
 The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and inversely
proportional to temperature.
 Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially incompressible
substances, and the variation of their density with pressure is usually
negligible.
 Cont…
2. Specific Volume
 Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid
occupied by a unit mass or
 volume per unit mass of a fluid or reciprocal of density is called
specific volume.
 It is denoted by
Mathematically, it is expressed as:

 It is expressed in SI unit as
 It is commonly applied to gases.
Cont…
3. Specific weight or Weight Density
 Specific weight of a fluid defined as the ratio of amount of weight
to volume of fluid in the gravitational field.
 Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid
 It is denoted by small .
 Mathematically:

 Its SI unit is

 It may change from one location to another location because it

depends upon the acceleration due to gravity.
Cont…
4. Specific Gravity
 Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density)
of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid.
 For liquid, water is considered as the standard fluid and for gases, air is
considered as the standard fluid.
 density of air isat 1atm & 25 ℃.
 Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is dimensionless
quantity and is denoted by the letter S.
 For Liquid,
 For Gas,

From above equation

 =
 Cont…
 If the specific gravity of a liquid is known,
then the density of the fluid will be equal
to specific gravity of liquid multiplied by
the density of water.
• For example the specific gravity of mercury
is 13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 x
1000= 13600 kg/m3.

NOTE
Standard fluid has a specific gravity is 1.( and )
If some fluid has a Specific gravity less than standard fluid( ) then
that fluid will be lighter or less dense as compared to standard fluid and
It will float over the standard fluid
If a fluid has a specific gravity greater than the standard fluid () then
that fluid will be heavier or high dense and
it will sink down in the standard fluid.
Cont…
Cont…
5. Viscosity
 A fluid particles flows/moves in a layer.
 When two fluid layers move relative to each other with different velocity, a friction
force develops between them and the slower layer tries to slow down the faster
layer.
 This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid property called
viscosity, which is a measure of internal stickiness of the fluid.
 Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance
to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of
the fluid.
 the internal resistance offered by one layer of the fluid to the
adjacent layer.
 Viscosity basically shows resistance to motion and hence if the
viscosity is less then the flow will be easy.
 The main reason of viscosity is molecular cohesive forces in case of
liquid and molecular momentum transfer in case of gases.
 Cont…
NOTE
Experiment shows that a fluid velocity at all fluid–solid boundaries is
equal to that of the solid boundary.
That means fluid in contact with stationary solid surface will have zero
velocity, and fluid in contact with moving solid surface will have the
same velocity as that of the solid. This condition is known as the No
sleep condition.
Suppose fluid is placed between two plates. The bottom one is
stationary and a force is applied to the top plate which causes shear stress
on the fluid. Thus the fluid will deform.
 Fluid layer in contact with top layer moves with velocity
 Fluid layer in contact with bottom layer moves with zero velocity.
 Fluid layers at the middle will have velocity between zero and

Thus their will be a velocity gradient

which is equal to rate of deformation
Cont…
Let's understand the concept of viscosity via below figure.
 When two layers of a fluid, a distance 'dy' apart move one over the
other at different velocities say u and u+du as shown, the viscosity
together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between
the fluid layers:

 The shear strain rate

(deformation rate, ) is equal to
velocity gradient (rate of change
of velocity with respect to y) ,
 Cont…
We want to study relation between the shear stress () and the rate of
deformation of the fluid (rate of shearing strain, )
It is simple to note that the shear stress is proportional to rate of
deformation
 Mathematically:
 Thus

 Where the proportionality constant is known as the coefficient

of dynamic viscosity or simply viscosity

Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress

required to produce unit rate of strain.
The SI unit of viscosity is
Cont…
Newton's Law of Viscosity.
 It states that the shear stress () on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of
proportionality is called the co-efficient viscosity.

 Fluid which obey this law are called Newtonian fluids

 Fluids which do not obey this law are called Non-Newtonian fluids.
Kinematic Viscosity
 It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of
fluid.
 lt is denoted by the Greek symbol () called nu .
 mathematically,

 The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s.

Cont…
Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
• Temperature affects viscosity of a fluid.
Viscosity Vs Temperature for liquid
 The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature.
 This is due to reason that the viscous forces in a fluid are due to
cohesive forces and molecular momentum transfer.
 In liquids the cohesive forces predominates the molecular
momentum transfer due to closely packed molecules
Viscosity in liquid is due to cohesive force
 and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces
decreases which the result of decreasing viscosity.

As temperature increase cohesive force decreased

 Thus
For Liquid
Cont…
Viscosity Vs Temperature for Gases
 The viscosity of gases increases with increase of temperature.
 This is due to reason that the viscous forces in a gas are due to
molecular momentum transfer.
 In the case of gases the cohesive force are small and molecular
momentum transfer predominates.

Viscosity in gas is due to molecular momentum transfer

 With the increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer

increases and hence viscosity increases.
As temperature increase molecular momentum transfer also increased

 Thus
For Gas
Example 3
Example 4
Example 5
 6. Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
 It is the property of fluid which is defined as ability of fluid to
change its volume under pressure.
 It contract when pressure is applied and expand to its
original volume when pressure removes.
 It is basically due to change in mass density due to external
pressure.
 This change in mass density in liquid is quite small so
neglected that's why liquid is considered as
incompressible for practical purposes
 On the other hand the change in mass density is
considered in gases and that's why It is compressible.
 Compressibility () of fluid can be defined as the reciprocal of
the bulk modulus of elasticity, K.
 Bulk Modulus (K): is defined as the ratio of compressive
stress to volumetric strain.
 7. Surface Tension and Capillarity
Surface Tension
 Fluid property which occur at the interface of a liquid and gas or
interface between two immiscible liquids
 Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of
a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two
immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a
membrane under tension.
 Surface tension is created due to the unbalanced cohesive forces acting
on the liquid molecules at the fluid surface.
 Molecules in the interior of the fluid mass are surrounded by
molecules that are attracted to each other equally
(BALANCED).
 However, molecules along the surface are subjected to a net
force toward the interior.
 Cont…

Also defined as:

 The intensity of the molecular
attraction per unit length along
any line in the surface is called
the surface tension.
 It is denoted by Greek letter
(called sigma).
 The SI unit is N/m.
 Cont…
Capillarity
 Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon
of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a
small tube relative to the adjacent
general level of liquid when the tube is
held vertically in the liquid.
 The rise of liquid surface is known as
capillary rise while the fall of the liquid
surface is known as capillary
depression.
 The attraction (adhesion) between the
 wall
Capillarity Rise/Fail
of the tube : is expressed
and liquid moleculesinis cm or mm of liquid. And its
vale depend
strong enoughon:to overcome the mutual
 Specific
attraction (cohesion)
weightof of the liquid
molecules
()
andpull them tension
Surface up the wall.
of theHence,
liquid ()the
liquid
 isDiameter
said to wet the tube
of the solid()surface.
 Example: water wets glass; mercury on the other hand does not wet
glass
 If glasses tube (open in both side) is dipped in water, the water
level in side the glass is higher than that of the general level.
However in case of mercury the level in side the glass is lower.
 The first case is said to be Capillarity Rise; and the rise of water
is given by (here thus
 The second case is said to be Capillarity Fall; and the height of
depression in the tube is given by

 Contact angle () depend on both the liquid and the solid

 If : the liquid is said to wet the solid
 If : the liquid repelled by the solid and tries not to wet the solid.
 Classification of Fluid Flows
• There are a wide variety of fluid flow problems encountered in
practice, and it is usually convenient to classify them on the basis of
some common characteristics to make it feasible to study them in
groups.

1. Viscous versus Inviscid fluid flow

2. Compressible versus Incompressible fluid flow
3. Laminar versus Turbulent fluid flow
4. Steady versus unsteady fluid flow
5. uniform versus non-uniform fluid flow
6. Internal versus External fluid flow
7. Natural versus Forced fluid flow
 Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
 This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid property called viscosity, which
is a measure of internal stickiness of the fluid.
 There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid flows involve viscous effects to
some degree.

 A flow is classified as being viscous or inviscid, depending on the

whether the effect of viscosity can be negligible or not.
 Flows in which the frictional effects (viscosity) are significant are
called viscous flows.
 However, in many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces
are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces; and
can be neglected, and such flow is known as inviscid flow.
 Neglecting the viscous terms in such inviscid flow regions
greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in
accuracy.
Cont…
Inviscid Viscous
Viscosity effects are neglected Effect of viscosity are important
Flow of unbounded Flow of bounded fluid/internal
fluid/external flow outside the flow modeled as viscous flow
boundary layer modeled as
inviscid flow
NB: In External flow any viscous effect that may exist exterior to near a
surface are confined to a thin layer and called boundary layer.
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
 A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible,
depending on the level of variation of density during flow.
Incompressibility is an approximation, and a flow is said to be
incompressible if the density remains nearly constant throughout.

 Therefore, the volume of every portion of fluid remains unchanged over

the course of its motion when the flow (or the fluid) is incompressible.
 The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus the flow of liquids is
typically incompressible. Therefore, liquids are usually referred to as
incompressible substances.
 A pressure of 210 atm, for example, causes the density of liquid water at 1
atm to change by just 1 percent.
Compressible fluid flow is defined as the flow in which the density is not
constant which means the density of the fluid changes from point to point.
 Cont…
 Gases are highly compressible.
 A pressure change of just 0.01 atm, for example, causes a change of 1 percent
in the density of atmospheric air.
 Gas flows can often be approximated as incompressible if the
density changes are under about 5 percent.

Mach Number ():

 a dimensionless number which is important in deciding whether a particular
gas flow can be studied as an incompressible flow or not.
When M < 0.3 the flow can be assumed incompressible (since such value
gives a density change under 5%)
When M > 0.3 compressibility effect should be accounted

 The compressibility effects of air can be neglected at speeds under about

100 m/s.
 Since taking (i.e. in dry air at 20 °C) if m/s them
 Cont…
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
 Some flows are smooth and orderly while others arc rather disorderly/chaotic.
 Laminar fluid flow is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid
particles move along well-defined paths or streamline and all the
streamlines are straight and parallel.
 Thus the particles move in the adjacent layers gliding smoothly
over on top of each other.
 The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities
is typically laminar.
 Turbulent fluid flow is defined as the type of flow in which the fluid
particles move in a disordered manner (zig-zag way); the eddies
formation takes place which is responsible for high energy loss.
 Typically occurs at high velocities and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations
 The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high velocities is
typically turbulent.
 Cont…
 Laminar Flow:
highly ordered (smooth)flow

 A flow that alternates

between being laminar and
turbulent is called
transitional.

 Turbulent Flow:
highly disordered (smooth)flow
Reynold Number (Rn): Dimensionless number used to predict nature of flow.
< 2000: Laminar flow
𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝐷 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑉 𝜌
> 4000: Turbulent flow 𝑅𝑛 = =
𝐹 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝜇
2000< <4000: Transitional flow

Laminar Turbulent
Fluid particles move in well-defined Fluid particles move in disordered
path manner
Essentially No mixing between There is mixing between
neighboring fluid particles layers neighboring fluid particles layers
flow of high-viscosity fluids such as The flow of low-viscosity fluids
oils at low velocities is typically such as air at high velocities is
laminar typically turbulent.
Rn < 2000 Rn > 4000
Cont…
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
 A fluid flow can be classified as steady and Unsteady depending on
whether the fluid characteristics like velocity, density, pressure, etc
at a point changes with time or not.

 The steady flow is characterized by a flow in which the fluid

characteristics at a point do not change with time.

 The Unsteady flow is characterized by a flow in which the fluid

characteristics at a point changes with time.
Cont…
Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
 A fluid flow can be classified as uniform and Non-uniform
depending on whether the flow velocity differs between any two
points while flowing.
 Uniform fluid flow a type of flow in which the velocity at any
given time does not change with respect to space.

For a constant time and s represent coordinates (x/y/z)

Non-uniform fluid flow a type of flow in which the velocity at any
given time changes with respect to space.
 Cont…
Internal versus External Flow
 A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending
on whether the fluid is forced to flow in a confined channel or
over a surface.
 The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a
plate, a wire, or a pipe is external flow.
 The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is
completely bounded by solid surfaces.

 Water flow in a pipe, for example, is internal flow, and airflow

over an airplane, a ball or over an exposed pipe during a windy
day is external flow .
 Cont…
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
 A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how the
fluid motion is initiated.
 In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by
external means such as a pump or a fan.
 In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the rise of the warmer
(and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid .
TYPES OF FLUIDS
 Cont…
1. Ideal Fluid. A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no
viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid.
 Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which
exist, have some viscosity.
2. Real fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid.
All the fluids: in actual practice, are real fluids.
3. Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly,
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is
known as a Newtonian fluid.
4. Non-Newtonian fluid. A real fluid, in which shear stress is not
proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient),
known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.
5. Ideal Plastic Fluid. A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the
yield value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear
strain (or velocity gradient), is known as ideal plastic fluid.
Cont…
Cont…
 Exercise
1. A block of weight W slides down an inclined plane while lubricated by a thin film of
oil, as in below figure. The film contact area is A and its thickness is h. Assuming a
linear velocity distribution in the film, derive an expression for the “terminal” (zero-
acceleration) velocity V of the block. Find the terminal velocity of the block if the
block mass is and the film is 1-mm-thick SAE 30 oil at . (Note that SAE 30 oil at )
(Ans: 15 m/s)

2. An oil has a kinematic viscosity of and a specific gravity of 0.80. What is its dynamic
(absolute) viscosity in kg/(m.s)? (Ans: )
3. Two parallel plates, one moving at 4 m/s and the other fixed, are separated by a 5-
mm-thick layer of oil of specific gravity 0.8 and kinematic viscosity. What is the
average shear stress in the oil? (Ans: )
4. A 1.9 mm diameter tube is inserted into a liquid whose density is 960 𝑘𝑔/ 𝑚^3 . it is
observed that the liquid rises 5 mm in the tube. Determine the surface tension of the
liquid. (Ans: )
 End of Chapter 1

Next Lecture
Chapter 2: Fluid Statics