Module-3
GEOLOGY
Geology is the science of the earth
GEO=Earth, LOGY=Study of
science
• It deal with the study of Origin , age, interior structure,
and history of earth
• Evolution and modification of various surface
features like rivers, mountains and Lakes.
• Material make ups the earth.
Application of Earth Science in Civil
Engineering Practices
Mapping
Exploration
Project Planning
Surface water
Groundwater
Geological Structures
Tunneling
Earthquake
Main and Allied Branch
of Geology
Main Branch Allied Branch
Physical Geology Engineering Geology
Mineralogy Mining Geology
Petrology Geophysics
Structural Geology Geohydrology
Historical Geology Geochemistry
Palaeontology
Economic Geology
Mineralogy
This deals with the study of minerals.
Mineralogy deals with the detailed mode of formation,
composition, occurrence, types, association properties uses
etc .
Mineralogy
Civil Engineering point of view
The strength and durability of the material depends on
chemical composition. The quartzite and marble resemble
one another in shine colour and appearance but quartzite by
virtue of its mineral composition is very hard tough, strong
and durable while the marble disintegrates and
decomposition in a short period because of its mineral
composition and properties.
Petrology
Petro =Rock, Logos =Study.
Petrology deals with study of Rocks .
The earth crust is also called as lithosphere, is made
of
different types of rocks. Petrology deals
formation, with the structure, texture,
types etc. composition, occurrence,
Petrology
Petrology
Civil Engineering point of view
The composition and characteristics of
texture rocks
primarily contribute to their strength and durability.
Rocks based on their suitability can be used for foundation
for dams, tunnelling's and other construction materials.
Hence it is most important branch of Geology from
civil
Engineering point of view.
Mineralogy
Minerals have been defined as naturally
occurring substances, mostly inorganic, that
are characterized by a definite chemical
composition and a definite atomic structure .
The branch of geology dealing with the study of
minerals is designated as Mineralogy.
Each mineral is generally characterized with a set
of qualities some of which are always distinctive
and differentiate it from other minerals.
Some of these qualities or properties may be
studied from the body of the minerals, its shape,
color, shine, hardness etc.; these are termed
physical properties.
Properties of Minerals
HABIT
A mineral may sometimes show a definite
and characteristic arrangement in its outer
appearance or physical shape. This shape is
expressed by the term Habit and is typical
in the case of many minerals.
Fibrous habit: -When the mineral is made
up of fibers, generally separable, e.g. in
Asbestos.
Columnar habit: - When the mineral is
composed of thin or thick columns,
sometimes flattened, e.g. in Hornblende.
(Apatite)
Apatite
Bladed habit: - The minerals appears as if
composed of thin, blade like structure, e.g. in
Kyanite
Granular habit: - The mineral shows numerous
grains packed together, e.g. in Chromite
Tabular habit: - The mineral is flat that are
elongated e.g. in Calcite, Orthoclase.
COLOUR
Minerals show great variety of colors. The
color of a substance and its appearance in
light depends upon the composition and
structure of the substance
The streak of a mineral is the color of the
powder produced when it is dragged across
an un-weathered surface. ... The surface
across which the mineral is dragged is called
a "streak plate", and is generally made of
unglazed porcelain tile.
LUSTER
The Shining / Reflection
of light from the
surface of mineral.
The luster of minerals
varies with the nature
of their surface
smooth / rough and
the quantity of light
reflected. The luster of
mineral can be divided
into two groups.
i)Metallic. ii)Non-
metallic
DIAPHENEITY:
Diaphaneity is the ability of the mineral to
transmit light through it. The following terms
are used to describe the varying degree of
transmission of light.
FRACTURE:
The fracture is the nature of the broken surface
of mineral. The breakage of a mineral in a
direction other than that of cleavages.
Fracture is described according to the
breakage pattern, i.e. the appearance of the
broken surface.
Note: Cleavage refers to the way
some minerals break along certain lines of
weakness in their structure
Even fracture-Appearance of a mineral in its
broken surface is Smooth. Mineral examples:
Chert, Mica.
Uneven fracture- when the mineral breaks
with very rough and coarse surfaces. Mineral
examples: Chromite and various other
minerals.
Conchoidal fracture- when a mineral breaks
with curved Surfaces or concentric Rings or
half moon shape. Mineral example: Quartz
Hardness
The hardness of a mineral is the resistance it
offers to abrasion, which is determined by
observing the comparative ease or difficulty
in scratching it with another mineral of
known hardness. It is always expressed by
Moh's Scale of Hardness
Specific gravity is the "heaviness" of
a mineral. It is defined as a number that
expresses the ratio between the weight of a
mineral and the weight of an equal volume of
water.
A mineral possessing heavier and closely
spaced atoms will have a high specific gravity:
whereas, a mineral possessing lighter and
widely-spaced atoms will have a low specific
gravity
All minerals have been found to possess a
specific gravity varying between 1 to 20: but
most of them do have specific gravities varying
between 2 to 7.
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS:
1. Quartz Group
Form - Granular
Colour - (varieties of quartz) Streak -
Colourless
Luster - Vitreous Cleavage – Absent
Fracture – Conchoidal to uneven Hardness –
7 [High]
Sp. gr. – Low to Medium. C C - Si 02
Occurrence– widely distributed all over India
occurs Beach Sand, River sand.
Uses:
(1) Manufacture of glass, porcelain
(2) Flux in metallurgical operation
(3) Agates are used as Ornaments
(4) Pure quartz crystal shows piezoelectricity
(5) Quartz plates are used in controlling
frequencies in radio circuits, radar, ultrasonic
and multiple telephone lines.
(6) Quartz is used in refractories
(7) Pure silica is used in ceramics
(8) Pure sand, free from impurities is used in
manufacturing Sand paper and Abrasive cloth
Pink quartz White quartz
orthocla Plagioclase
se
Microcline
3. Mica
Group
Black and white mica
5. Amphibole Group
Types of weathering
Physical Weathering
Chemical Weathering
Biological Weathering
Physical weathering, also known as
mechanical weathering or disaggregation, is
the process class that causes rocks to
disintegrate without chemical change. Abrasion
(the process by which clasts and other particles
are reduced in size) is the primary process in
physical weathering.
Due to temperature, pressure, frost etc.,
physical weather may occur. For instance,
cracks exploited by physical weathering will
increase the surface area that is exposed to
Where does Physical Weathering occur?
In places where there is little soil and few
plants grow, such as mountain regions and
hot deserts, physical weathering occurs
especially.
How does Physical Weathering occur?
Either by repeated melting and freezing of
water (mountains) or by expanding and
shrinking the surface layer of rocks baked by
the sun (hot deserts).
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering changes rock composition,
often transforming them into different chemical
reactions when water interacts with minerals.
Chemical weathering is a gradual and ongoing
process as the rock mineralogy adjusts to the
environment near the surface.
The rock’s original minerals develop new or
secondary minerals. The oxidation and hydrolysis
processes are most important in this.
Chemical weathering is enhanced by geological
agents such as water and oxygen, as well as
biological agents such as microbial and plant-root
metabolism acids.
Where does Chemical Weathering occur?
These chemical processes require water and
occur faster at higher temperatures, so it is
best to have warm, humid climates. The first
stage in soil production is chemical
weathering (especially hydrolysis and
oxidation).
How does Chemical Weathering occur?
There are various types of chemical weathering,
the most important of which is:
Solution
Removal of rock by acidic rainwater in solution. In
particular, dissolved CO2-containing rainwater
(this process is sometimes referred to as
carbonation) weathers calestone.
Hydrolysis
Acidic water breakdown of rock producing clay
and soluble salts.
Oxidation
Rock breakdown by oxygen and water, often
giving a rusty – colored weathered surface to iron
– rich rocks.
Biological Weathering
Biological weathering is the weakening and
subsequent breakdown by plants, animals
and microbes of rock.
Growing roots of plants can put stress or
pressure on rock. Even though the process is
physical, a biological process (i.e. growing
roots) exerts the pressure.
Biological processes can also produce
chemical weathering, such as when organic
acids are produced by plant roots or
microorganisms that help dissolve minerals.
Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by
altering the chemical composition of the rock,
making it more weather sensitive.
One example of microbial activity is lichen ; lichen is
a symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae.
Fungi release chemical substances that break down
rock minerals ; the algae consume the minerals thus
released from rock.
Holes and gaps continue to develop on the rock as
this process continues, exposing the rock to physical
and chemical weathering.
Burrowing animals can move fragments of rock to
the surface, exposing the rock to more intense
chemical, physical, and biological processes, thereby
indirectly enhancing the weathering process.
Fig: Effects of Weathering
on Rocks
Landforms
A landform is a natural or artificial feature
of the solid surface of the Earth .
Landforms together make up a given terrain ,
and their arrangement in the landscape is
known as topography
Typical landforms include hills, mountains,
valleys as well as shoreline features such as
bays and seas including submerged features
like volcanoes and ocean basins .
Physical characteristics
Landforms are categorized by characteristic
physical attributes such as elevation, slope,
orientation, stratification, rock exposure, and
soil type.
Gross physical features or landforms include
intuitive elements such as hills, valleys, river,
volcanoes and numerous other structural and
size-scaled (ex. Ponds vs. lakes, hills vs.
mountain) elements including various kinds
of inland and oceanic water bodies and sub-
surface features
