TOPIC 1: ELECTRIC DRIVE

INTRODUCTION
• Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic applications like
transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans,
pumps, robots, washing machines etc.
• Systems employed for motion control are called DRIVES, and may employ any of prime
movers such as diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, steam engines,
hydraulic motors and electric motors, for supplying mechanical energy for motion
control. Drives employing electric motors are known as Electrical Drives.
Drive:
• A combination of prime mover, transmission equipment and mechanical Working load
is called a drive
Electric drive:
• An Electric Drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting
electrical energy to mechanical energy to impart motion to different machines and
mechanisms for various kinds of process control.

• Drive system = Drive + Load

 INTRODUCTION

• Drive system = Drive + Load

• Applications of electric drives:

Paper mills
Cement Mills
Textile mills
Sugar Mills
Steel Mills
Electric Traction
Petrochemical Industries
Electrical Vehicles
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN ELECTRIC DRIVES
BASIC ELEMENTS/COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC DRIVES
These includes:
1. Load: usually a machinery to accomplish a given task. Eg-fans, pumps, washing
machine etc.
2. Power modulator: modulators (adjust or converter) power flow from the source to
the motion
3. Motor: actual energy converting machine (electrical to mechanical)
4. Source: energy requirement for the operation the system.
5. Control: adjust motor and load characteristics for the optimal mode.
 POWER MODULATORS
• Power modulators regulate the power flow from source to the motor to enable the
motor to develop the torque speed characteristics required by the load.

• The common function of the power modulator is,

1. They contain and control the source and motor currents with in permissible limits
during the transient operations such as starting, braking, speed reversal etc.
2. They converts the input electrical energy into the form as required by the motors.
3. Adjusts the mode of operation of the motor that is motoring, braking are
regenerative
 POWER MODULATORS
• Power modulators may be classified as,
1. Converters uses power devices to convert uncontrolled valued to controllable
output.
2. Switching circuits switch mode of operation
3. Variable impedance

Converters
• They provide adjustable voltage/current/frequency to control speed, torque output
power of the motor.
• The various type of converters are,
a) AC to DC rectifier, b)DC to DC choppers c)AC to AC
choppers, AC to AC –AC voltage controllers (voltage level is controlled)
d)Cyclo converter (Frequency is controlled)
e) DC to AC inverters
SWITCHING CIRCUITS AND VARIABLE IMPEDANCE
• Switching circuits are needed to achieve any one of the following
1. Changing motor connection to change its quadrant of operation.
2. Changing motor circuits parameters in discrete steps for automatic starting and
braking control.
3. For operating motors and drives according to a predetermine sequence
4. To provide inter locking their by preventing maloperation
5. Disconnect under up normal condition Eg: electromagnetic contacters,

• Variable impedance
• Variable resisters are commonly used for AC and DC drives and also needed for
dynamic braking of drives

• Semiconductors switch in parallel with a fixed resistance is used where stepless

variation is needed. inductors employed to limit starting current of ac motors.
 CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRIC DRIVES
• Classification of Electric Drives
According to Mode of Operation
1. Continuous duty drives 2. Short time duty drives 3.
Intermittent duty drives
According to Means of Control
1. Manual 2. Semi-automatic 3. Automatic
According to Number of machines
1. Individual drive 2. Group drive 3. Multi-motor drive
According to Dynamics and Transients
1. Uncontrolled transient period 2. Controlled transient period
According to Methods of Speed Control
1. Reversible and non-reversible uncontrolled constant speed.
2. Reversible and non-reversible step speed control.
3. Variable position control.
 GROUP ELECTRIC DRIVES

1. Group drive
One motor is used as a drive for two or more than machines. The motor is connected to
a long shaft. All the other machines are connected to this shaft through belt and pulleys.
Advantages:
1. Group drive is most economical because, the rating of the motor used may be
comparatively less than the aggregate of the individual motors required to drive each
equipment, because all of they may not be working simultaneously.
2. Group drive reduces the initial cost of installing a particular industry.
3. Cost is less because of investment in one motor which is lesser in HP rating.
 AC DRIVE, DC DRIVES
• Definition
• AC drives (also known as VFD) convert the AC supply to DC using converter (rectifier) and
invert it back from the DC to the AC using inverter to run the AC motors.
• DC drives only convert the input AC supply to the DC using converter circuit based on
rectifier to run the DC motors.
• Control
• AC drives control AC output from AC input.
• DC drives control DC output from AC input.
• Main Supply & Voltage
• AC Drives run by AC power supply i.e. single phase and three phase AC voltages. AC is Self
Start
• DC Drives run by DC power supply i.e. Batteries and supplies sources of DC
• Voltages. DC drives are Not self starting

• FIND MORE POINTS

 GROUP ELECTRIC DRIVES
Disadvantages:
The use of this kind of drive is restricted due to the following reasons:
i. It is not possible to install any machine as per our wish. so, flexibility of lay out is
lost. The possibility of installation of additional machines in an existing industry is
limited.
ii. In case of any fault to the main driving motor, all the other motors will be stopped
immediately. So, all systems will remain idle and is not advisable for any industry.
iii. Level of noise produced at the site is high.
iv. Since all the motors has to be connected through belts and pulleys, large amount of
energy is wasted in transmitting mechanisms. Therefore, power loss is high.
 INDIVIDUAL ELECTRIC DRIVES
• In this drive, there will be a separate driving motor for each process equipment.
• One motor is used for transmitting motion to various parts or mechanisms belonging to
signal equipment. Ex: Lathe
• One motor used in lathe which rotates the spindle, moves feed with the help of gears
and imparts motion to the lubricating and cooling pumps).

Advantages:
i. Machines can be located at convenient places.
ii. Continuity in the production of the processing industry is ensured to a high level of
reliability.
iii. If there is a fault in one motor, the effect on the production or output of the industry
will not be appreciable.

Disadvantages:
iv. Initial cost is very high.
 MULTIMOTOR ELECTRIC DRIVES
• In this type of drive, separate motors are provided for actuating different parts of the
driven mechanism.
Ex: cranes, drives used in paper mills, rolling mills etc.,
• In cranes, separate motors are used for hoisting, long travel motion and cross travel
motion.
 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC DRIVES
Advantages of electric drives includes:
1. Drives can be provided with automatic fault detection systems. Programmable logic
controller and computers can be employed to automatically control the drive operations
in a desired sequence.
2. They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power.
3. They are adaptable to almost any operating conditions such as explosive and
radioactive environments
4. It can operate in all the four quadrants of speed-torque plane
5. They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded
6. Control gear requirement for speed control, starting and braking is usually simple
and easy to operate.
 DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC DRIVES
Disadvantages of Electric drives includes
1. The application of the drive is limited because it cannot use in a place where the
power supply is not available
2. It can cause noise pollution
3. The initial cost of the system is high
4. It has a poor dynamic response
5. The output power obtained from the drive is low
6. During the breakdown of conductors or short circuit, It may lead to fatal accidents
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF ELECTRIC DRIVES
i. Nature of electric supply: Whether AC or DC supply is to be used for supply
ii. Nature of the drive: Whether the particular motor is going to drive individual
machine or a group of machines
iii. Capital and running cost
iv. Maintenance requirement
v. Space ad weight restrictions
vi. Environment and location
vii. Nature of load
Whether the load requires light or heavy starting torque
Whether load torque increases with speed remain constant
Whether the load has heavy inertia which may require longer straight time
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF ELECTRIC DRIVES
viii. Electrical characteristics of motor
Starting characteristics, running characteristics, speed control and Braking characteristics
ix. Size, rating and duty cycle of motors
Whether the motor is going to the operator for a short time or whether it has to run
continuously intermittently or on a variable load cycle
x. Mechanical considerations
• Type of enclosures, type of bearings, transmission of drive and Noise level.
• Due to practical difficulties, it may not possible to satisfy all the above considerations.
• In such circumstances, it is the experience and knowledge background which plays a vital
role in the selection of the suitable drive.

• The following points must be given utmost important for the selection of motor. The factors
are:
i. Nature of the mechanical load driven
ii. Matching of the speed torque characteristics of the motor with that of the load
 LOAD REQUIREMENTS
• The load requirements are in either of
I. Speed control
II. Torque control

• Depending upon the load requirements the motor has to be chosen.

For example in traction system the load (traction network) needs high starting torque
(initially high current value is needed at the start. A series motor provides a high starting
torque as .Hence series motor should be chosen for traction system.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD
1. Torque dependent on speed
• (Ex-hoists, pumping of water or gas against constant pressure)

2. Torque linearly dependent on speed

• (Ex- motor driving a DC generator connected to a fixed resistance load [generator field
value is kept constant]

3. Torque proportional to square of speed

• (Ex- fans, centrifugal pumps, propellers)

• 4. Torque inversely proportional to speed

• (Ex-milling and boring, machines)
 INDUSTRIAL LOAD
There are three types of industrial loads under which electric motors are required to
work. they are
i. Continuous load: Load is continuous in nature Ex- Pumps or fans require a constant
power input to keep them operating.
ii. Intermittent load
• This type classified in to two types
a) Motor loaded for short time and then shunt off for sufficiently longer duration
temperature is brought to the room temperature Eg: kitchen mixite.
b) Motor loaded for short time and shunt off for short time .
Here the motor cannot be cooled down to the room temperature comparison of the
two methods it can be Inferred.
The temperature level of motor is not brought to the room temperature.
iii. Variable or fluctuating load
 HEATING AND COOLING CURVES
A machine can be considered as a homogeneous body developing heat internally at
uniform rate and dissipating heat proportionately to its temperature rise,
RELATION SHIP BETWEEN TEMPERATURE RISE AND TIME
Let,
 HEATING AND COOLING CURVES
Assume that a machine attains a temperature rise after the lapse of time t seconds.
In an element of time “dt” a small temperature rise “d” takes place.
Then,
Heat developed = p.dt
Heat developed = Gh.dθ
Heat dissipated = SQʎ. dt
Therefore, total heat developed=heat stored + heat dissipated
HEATING AND COOLING CURVES
 HEATING AND COOLING CURVES
Heating time constant is defined as the time taken by the machine to attain 0.623 of its
final steady temperature rise.

The heating time constant of the machine is the index of time taken by the machine to
attain its final steady temperature rise.

The value of heating time constant is larger for poorly ventilated machines with large or
totally enclosed machines, the heating time constant may reach several hours or even
days.
 HEATING AND COOLING CURVES
When a hot body is cooling due to reduction of the losses developed in it, the
temperature time curve is again an exponential function
 HEATING AND COOLING CURVES
If motor where disconnected from supply during cooling, there would be no losses taking
place and hence, final temperature reached will be the ambient temperature.

COOLING TIME CONSTANT

 CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY CYCLE
• Various load time variations encountered into eight classes as

i. continuous duty
ii. short time duty
iii. intermittent periodic duty
iv. intermittent periodic duty with starting
v. intermittent periodic duty with starting & braking
vi. continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
vii. continuous duty with starting & braking
viii. Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.
CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY CYCLE
CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY CYCLE
 CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY CYCLE
Where,
TL – Load torque in N-M, Ө- Temperature in Degree centigrade, t- Time in seconds.

1. Continuous duty:
• This type drive is operated continuously for a duration which is long enough to reach
its steady state value of temperature.
• This duty is characterized by constant motor torque and constant motor loss operation.
Depicted in fig.1 (a) & (b).
• This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors
and DC shunt motors.

Examples:
Paper mill drives, Compressors, Conveyors, Centrifugal pumps and Fans ,
 CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY CYCLE
2. Short time duty:
• In this type drive operation, Time of operation is less than heating time constant and
motor is allowed to cool off to room temperature before it is operated again.
• Here the motor can be overloaded until the motor temperature reaches its permissible
limit. Depicted in fig.2 (a) & (b).
• This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors
and DC shunt motors, DC series motors, universal motors.

Examples:
Crane drives, Drives for house hold appliances, Turning bridges, Sluice gate drives, Valve
drives and Machine tool drives.
 CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY CYCLE
3. Intermittent periodic duty:
• In this type drive operation, It consists of a different periods of duty cycles I.e. a period
of rest and a period of running, a period of starting, a period of braking.
Depicted in fig.3 (a) & (b).
• Both a running period is not enough to reach its steady state temperature and a rest
period is not enough to cool off the machine to ambient temperature.
• In this type drive operation, heating due to starting and braking is negligible.
• This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors
and DC shunt motors, universal motors.

Examples:
Pressing, Cutting, Drilling machine drives.
 CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY CYCLE
4. Intermittent periodic duty with starting:
• This is intermittent periodic duty where heating due to starting cant be ignored.
Depicted in fig.4 (a) & (b).
• It consists of a starting period; a running period, a braking period & a rest period are
being too short to reach their steady state value.
• In this type of drive operation, heating due to braking is negligible.
• This type of duty can be accomplished by three phase induction motors and DC series
motors, DC compound motors, universal motors.

Examples:
Metal cutting, Drilling tool drives, Drives for forklift trucks, Mine hoist
 CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY CYCLE
5. Intermittent periodic duty with starting & braking:
• This is an intermittent periodic duty where heating during starting & braking can‟t be
ignored.
Depicted in fig.5 (a) & (b).
• It consists of a starting period, a running period; a braking period & a rest period are
being too short to reach their steady state temperature value.
• This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors
and DC shunt motors, DC series motors, DC compound motors, universal motors.

Examples:
Billet mill drive, Manipulator drive, Ingot buggy drive, Screw down mechanism of
blooming mill, Several machine tool drives, Drives for electric suburban trains and Mine
hoist
 CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY CYCLE
6. Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading:
• This type of drive operation consists a period of running at constant load and a period
of running at no load with normal voltage to the excitation winding in separately
excited machines. Again the load and no load periods are not enough to reach their
respective temperature limits.
• This duty is distinguished from intermittent periodic duty by running at no load instead
of rest period.
• This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors
and DC compound motors, universal motors.

Examples:
Pressing, Cutting, Shearing and Drilling machine drives.
 CLASSES OF MOTOR DUTY CYCLE
7. Continuous duty with starting & braking:
• It consists a period of starting, a period of running & a period of electrical braking. Here
period of rest is negligible.
• This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors.
Examples: The main drive of a blooming mill.

8. Continuous duty with periodic speed changes:

• It consists a period of running in a load with a particular speed and a period of running
at different load with different speed which are not enough to reach their respective
steady state temperatures. Further here is no period of rest.
• This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors
and DC series motor in traction.
Examples:
All variable speed drives.
 DETERMINATION OF MOTOR RATINGS
• It is not correct to select the motor according to the lowest or highest load because the
motor would be overloaded in the first case and under loaded in the second case.
Therefore it becomes necessary to adopt suitable methods for the determination of
motor ratings.

• The four commonly used methods are:

1. Methods of average losses
2. Equivalent current method
3. Equivalent torque method
4. Equivalent power method
 METHOD OF AVERAGE LOSSES
1. Methods of average losses
• The method consists of finding average losses Q av in the motor when it operates
according to the given load diagram.
• These losses are then compared with the Q , the losses corresponding to the
continuous duty of the machine when operated at its normal rating.
• The method of average losses presupposes that when Q av = Q nomn , the motor will
operate without temperature rise going above the maximum permissible for the
particular class of insulation.
The figure shows a simple power load diagram and loss diagram for variable load
conditions.
• The losses of the motor are calculated for each portion of the load diagram by referring
to the efficiency curve of the motor.
METHOD OF AVERAGE LOSSES
 EQUIVALENT CURRENT METHOD
2. Equivalent Current Method
• The equivalent current method is based on the assumption that the actual variable
current may be replaced by an equivalent current i eq which produces the same losses
in the motor as the actual current.

• The equivalent current is compared with the rated current of the motor selected and
the conditions should be met. Inom is the rated current of the machine.
• The machine selected should also be checked for its overload capacity.
 EQUIVALENT TORQUE & POWER METHOD
3. Equivalent torque method
• At constant flux and power factor, torque is directly proportional to current.

4. Equivalent power method

• The equation for equivalent power method, power is directly proportional to torque.
• At constant speed or where the changes in speed are small, the equivalent power is
given by the following relationship,
 MODES OF OPERATION
• Various load torques can be classified into broad categories.
1. Active load torques 2. Passive load torques
• Load torques which has the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions
are called active load torques. Such load torques usually retain their sign when the
drive rotation is changed (reversed)
Eg: Torque due to force of gravity, Torque due tension, Torque due to compression and
torsion etc
• Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of
motion are called passive load torques
Eg: Torque due to friction, cutting etc.
• The essential requirements in the section of a particular type of motor for driving a
machine is the matching of speed-torque characteristics of the given drive unit and
that of the motor.
• Different types of loads exhibit different speed torque characteristics. However, most of
the industrial loads can be classified into the following four categories:
 MODES OF OPERATION
i. Constant torque type load: Constant torque irrespective of the speed eg; cutting and
shaping machines
ii. Torque proportional to speed (Generator Type load) eg: separate excited dc
generator
iii. Torque proportional to square of the speed (Fan type load) eg: fan rotary pumps,
compressor
iv. Torque inversely proportional to speed (Constant power type load) eg: milling
machines
• A motor operates in two modes – Motoring and braking.
• In motoring, it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, which supports its
motion .
• In braking it works as a generator converting mechanical energy into electrical energy
and thus opposes the motion.
• Power developed by a motor is given by the product of speed and torque. For motoring
operations Power developed is positive and for braking operations power developed is
negative.
 MODES OF OPERATION
•
 MODES OF OPERATION
• Basics of Regenerative Braking
• In the regenerative braking operation, the motor operates as generator, while it is still
connected to the supply. Here, the motor speed is greater than the synchronous speed.
• Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy, part of which is returned to the
supply and rest of the energy is last as heat in the winding and bearings of electrical
machines pass smoothly from motoring region to generating region, when over driven
by the load.
• Dynamics of Motor Load System
• A motor generally drives a load (Machines) through some transmission system. While
motor always rotates, the load may rotate or undergo a translational motion.
• Load speed may be different from that of motor that is if the load has many parts, their
speed may be different and while some parts rotate others may go through a
translational motion.
• Equivalent rotational system of motor and load is shown in the figure.
 MODES OF OPERATION

• J = Moment of inertia of motor load system referred to the motor shaft kg / m2

• ωm = Instantaneous angular velocity of motor shaft, rad/sec.
• T = Instantaneous value of developed motor torque, N-m
• Tl = Instantaneous value of load torque, referred to the motor shaft N-m
• Load torque includes friction and wind age torque of motor. Motor-load system
shown in figure can be described by the following fundamental torque equation.

• Equation (1) is applicable to variable inertia drives such as mine

winders, reel drives, Industrial robots.
 MODES OF OPERATION
• For drives with constant inertia, torque developed by motor will be given by;

• Modes of Operation of electric drives

• An electrical drive operates in three modes:
i. Steady state
ii. Acceleration including Starting
iii. Deceleration including Stopping
 MODES OF OPERATION
We know that ……………………. (a)
1. Steady State mode
• From eqn (a), steady state operation takes place when motor torque equals the load
torque.
• The steady state operation for a given speed is realized by adjustment of steady state
motor speed torque curve such that the motor and load torques are equal at this
speed.
• Change in speed is achieved by varying the steady state motor speed torque curve so
that motor torque equals the load torque at the new desired speed.
 MODES OF OPERATION
• Acceleration and Deceleration modes are transient modes.
• Starting is a special case of acceleration where a speed change from 0 to a desired
speed takes place. All points mentioned in relation to acceleration are applicable to
starting.
• Drive operates in acceleration mode whenever an increase in its speed is required. For
this motor speed torque curve must be changed so that motor torque exceeds the load
torque. Time taken for a given change in speed depends on inertia of motor load
system and the amount by which motor torque exceeds the load torque.
• Increase in motor torque is accompanied by an increase in motor current. Care must be
taken to restrict the motor current with in a value which is safe for both motor and
power modulator.
• In applications involving acceleration periods of long duration, current must not be
allowed to exceed the rated value. When acceleration periods are of short duration a
current higher than the rated value is allowed during acceleration.
MODES OF OPERATION
CONTROL LOOPS
CONTROL LOOPS
 EXAMPLE
Ex 1: A motor operates on a periodic duty cycle in which it is clutched to its load
for 20 minutes and declutched to run on no-load for 30 minutes, minimum
temperature rise is 50֯ C. heating and cooling time constants are equal and have a
value of 60 minutes. When load is declutched continuously the temperature rise is
25֯ C. Determine:
i. Maximum temperature during the duty cycle
ii. Temperature when the load is clutched continuously
CONTROL LOOPS
EXAMPLE