Outline of the Chapter

It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary sources

of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%, amounting to

an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world.

Our reliance on coal, natural gas, and petroleum is overwhelming.

In order to achieve some understanding of the problems related to our use of these

nonrenewable energy sources we will explore how each fuel was formed, the history of

its use and resource development, projections for its use in the future, and the total

global resource.
Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural resources such as anaerobic decomposition of
buried dead organisms.

The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and
sometimes exceeds 650 million years.

The fossil fuels, which contain high percentages of carbon, include coal, petroleum, and
natural gas.

Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane,
to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like
anthracite coal.

It is generally accepted that they formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and
animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. This
biogenic theory was first introduced by Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by
Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.
Fossils (from Latin fossus, literally "having been dug up") are the preserved remains or

traces of animals (also known as zoolites), plants, and other organisms from the remote

past.

Georg Agricola
Mikhail Lomonosov( Russian)
( Germany)
Petroleum

Petroleum (L. petroleum, from Greek: petra (rock) + Latin: oleum (oil)) or crude oil is a

naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of

various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds, that are found in

geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface.

Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling.

Later it is refined and separated, most easily by boiling point, into a large number of

consumer products, from gasoline and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used

to make plastics and pharmaceuticals.

Petroleum comes from plant and animal life in the ancient seas of hundreds of millions of

years ago.

The organic material accumulated on the bottom of these seas and decomposition

occurred through the action of bacteria.

Eventually sediments of sand and mud on top of these organic deposits created

conditions of high temperature and pressure that resulted in loss of oxygen.

In this way a variety of hydrocarbon molecules were created, some of them solid, some

of them liquid, and some of them gas.

The liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons could travel rather large distances in the porous

sedimentary rock.

Eventually, under the influence of the geologic structures and gravity, some of the

hydrocarbon material accumulated in geologic traps such as shown in the following

figure. These reservoirs now lie beneath dry land as well as offshore under the oceans.
Composition of Petroleum

In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes
all liquid, gaseous, and solid (e.g., paraffin) hydrocarbons.

Under surface pressure and temperature conditions, lighter hydrocarbons methane,

ethane, propane and butane occur as gases, while pentane and heavier ones are in the
form of liquids or solids.

The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to formation but the
proportion of chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as follows
Element Percent
range
Composition by weight Carbon 83 to 87%
Hydrogen 10 to 14%
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%
Oxygen 0.1 to 1.5%
Sulfur 0.5 to .6%
Metals < 0.1%
Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black

or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish).

Exploration of Petroleum

The profession of locating petroleum deposits has become increasingly more

sophisticated as the undiscovered resources have become less abundant.

In one method of geophysical exploration, sound waves from an explosion or from

vibrating weights are sent down into the earth.

When these sound waves encounter the interface between layers of rock with different

acoustical properties they are partially reflected back from deep underground to the

surface where they can be read by sensitive receivers called geophones.

In this way the exploration geologists can determine if an underground geological

formation is likely to contain a significant reservoir of petroleum.

The only real proof of an oil or natural gas deposit must be obtained by drilling.
The first well drilled in a new area is called an exploratory or wildcat well.

After a petroleum deposit has been found by drilling, further wells are drilled to determine

the extent of the reservoir.

Then the total amount of oil that can be commercially extracted from the new area is

estimated and added to what is called the proved reserve.

History of the production of the petroleum in the Sultanate of Oman

A geological survey of the country in 1925 found no conclusive evidence of oil. Twelve

years later, however, when geologists began intensively searching for oil in neighboring

Saudi Arabia, Oman's then sultan granted a 75-year concession to the

Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC).

The exploration and production operations were to be run on behalf of the IPC by

Petroleum Development (Oman and Dhofar) Ltd.

The operating company had four shareholders, : (1) the Royal Dutch/Shell Group, (2)the

Anglo-Persian Company (which would eventually become the British Petroleum

Company, or BP), (3) Compagnie Française des Pétroles (whose convoluted lineage

would make it a predecessor of today’s TotalFina-Elf) and (4) the Near East

Development Company (whose likewise convoluted lineage would make it a subsidiary

of today’s ExxonMobil).
Having landed at Duqm in February 1954, IPC geologists were faced with tribal conflicts
which made access to the most promising oil prospect, Jebel Fahud, difficult.
They reached the jebel in October 1954 and began to survey the surrounding terrain.
Supplies had to be transported from Duqm.
In January 1956 the company started drilling its first well at Fahud but the hardships
were all in vain: the well was dry.
Later, when the supply line was switched to the Sumail Gap, warring tribes were able to
disrupt convoys and bring operations to a halt.
Further dry wells were drilled and this lack of success, combined with worsening
logistical problems and a glut of oil on the world market, led most of the partners to
withdraw from the venture in 1960.
Only Shell and Partex opted to remain in Oman to continue the search for oil. Their
optimism was soon to pay off, however: they struck oil at Yibal in 1962 — and from
these inauspicious beginnings an oil-producing nation was born.
Sumail Gap (between the eastern and western Hajar mountains)
 Yibal is the largest oilfield in Oman.
It began production in 1968, and at
its peak had a production of nearly
250,000 barrels per day (40,000
m3/d). In recent years, it has begun
to decline, and in 2005 produces
about 88,000 barrels per day
(14,000 m3/d). The Yibal oil field is
operated primarily by
Royal Dutch Shell.

Oil rig @Yibal

Petroleum resources of the Oman

According to Oil & Gas Journal, Oman has total proven reserves of 5.5 billion barrels of

oil.
 Oman produced 863,000 barrels per day (bbl/d) of total petroleum liquids in 2010,

860,000 bbl/d of which was crude oil. Average oil production in Oman has increased by

over 20 percent for the past three years, from a low of 714,000 bbl/d in 2007.
The crude petroleum taken directly from the ground is not directly usable for most

applications. It is a mixture of hundreds of chemical compounds called hydrocarbons and

some impurities such as sulfur. The crude petroleum needs to be treated to generate

products that are essential for an industrialized society.

The first step in the process is fractional distillation. The crude oil is vaporized by heating

it to about 400°C; the vapors are then introduced at the bottom of a fractionating column

or tower. The vapors condense at various collection points going up the tower as the

temperature for condensation decreases.

Figure 2.4 shows the general arrangement. Gasoline, with the lowest boiling point,

condenses and is drawn off at the top, whereas heating oil, which condenses at a higher

temperature, is drawn off lower down.

The gases that do not condense leave from the top of the column. The residue that

comes from the bottom of the column contains asphalt and heavy fuel oil.
Table 2.3 shows some of the products of fractional distillation, their molecular size,

boiling point range, and typical uses.

In recent years natural gas has become a

favorite fossil fuel that many believe has great

prospects of filling our energy needs in the

coming decades. Natural gas delivered to the

consumer is somewhat variable in composition.

It is always principally methane, CH4, typically 80

to 95%, and usually contains ethane, C2H6, along

with small amounts of heavier hydrocarbons.

There are several reasons for predicting that our use of natural gas will

increase relative to other fuels.

1. There have been improvements in the technologies for exploration and production

and the resource base has increased.

2. Relative to other fossil fuels, natural gas releases less harmful combustion products

per unit of energy produced.

3. There have been a number of new applications of natural gas such as motor fuel for

transportation that increase the demand.

4. On a Btu basis, compared to oil and electric energy, natural gas is a less costly

source of energy.
The Natural Gas Resource Base for the World

There is an impressive amount of natural gas in the

reserves of the countries of the world. Countries with

some of the larger reserves are listed in Table 2.5.

The total for all countries is about 6400 tcf.

Exploration for natural gas is less advanced than for

oil. In fact, much of the known natural gas resource is

a by-product of oil exploration. This situation is rapidly

changing as the economic and environmental benefits

of natural gas are providing an impetus for oil

companies to search specifically for natural gas in

likely geologic formations.

Natural gas resources in the Sultanate of Oman

Oman has proven reserves of natural gas amounting to 30 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) as of

January 1, 2011, according to Oil & Gas Journal.

Coal

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock normally occurring in

rock strata in layers called coal beds.

The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock

because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure.

Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements,

chiefly sulfur, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen

Coal, a fossil fuel, is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity

worldwide, as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of

carbon dioxide releases. Gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal usage are slightly

more than those from petroleum and about double the amount from natural gas.
The history of coal formation differs significantly from that of oil and natural gas. Coal

has its origin in the abundant plants that started to grow 350 million years ago.

There was huge swamps then with giant ferns, shrubs, vines, trees, and algae that grew

and then fell into decay.

The carbon in the organic material accumulated in layers at the bottom of the swamp.

Initially the dead plant material was decomposed by aerobic bacteria, yielding carbon

dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and some other gases.

Later the layers of what was to become coal were completely covered so they were no

longer exposed to air, and the decay proceeded further by anaerobic action.
 • Most of the coal
we have on Earth
today was formed
in the
Carboniferous
Swamp period 360 – 299
million years ago
• Tropical, swampy
climate
• Plants die and
over time form
Older rock layers layers of squashed
plant material
 • Squashed plant
material
accumulates
over thousands
of years.
Peat • Plant material
turns into peat.
• Peat is used for
fuel Ireland,
Scotland and
Finland
 • Peat is buried by
layers of sediment
and subjected to
increased heat and
Younger rock layers pressure
• ‘Cooked’ into coal
• The type of coal you
get depends on
Coal seam
how long it was
buried, how deep
and how hot it got.
Older rock layers
 Peat The hotter the
temperature, the
deeper the coal is
buried, and the
Lignite
longer the amount of
time the coal is
Bituminous buried, the more
coal efficient coal you get.

Anthracite
The first stage of coal formation produces peat.

In time, the peat or humus type material was heated and compressed by the overburden

and carbon rich coal was formed.

Anthracite is the oldest form of coal. It is the hardest and cleanest burning, with a carbon

content of up to 95%.

Bituminous coal is about 300 million years old and is about 50 to 80% carbon.

Lignite, a third type of coal, is about 150 million years old and its carbon content ranges

up to 50%. Some lignite will show traces of its fossil origins.

The lowest grade of coal-like material is peat; it provides a low-quality fuel in many parts

of the world as well as serving as organic material for gardeners.

Coal Formation and Types
 Anthracite Bituminous Coal

Peat
Lignite
 Coal Formation

Type of % % Volatile % Carbon Heat Value

Coal Water (BTU/pound)

Peat 90 5 5

Lignite 45 20 35 7000

Bituminous 5-15 20-30 55-75 12000

Anthracite 4 1 95 14000
World Coal resources
Environmental Effects of Coal

There are a number of adverse environmental effects of coal mining and burning,
specially in power stations including:
1. Generation of hundreds of millions of tons of waste products, including fly ash,
bottom ash, flue gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium, thorium,
arsenic, and other heavy metals
2. Acid rain from high sulfur coal
3. Dust nuisance
4. Subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure
5. Coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a year in the United States,
including 2,800 from lung cancer
6. Coal-fired power plants emit mercury, selenium, and arsenic which are harmful to
human health and the environment
7. Release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, which causes climate change and
global warming according to the IPCC and the EPA. Coal is the largest contributor to
the human-made increase of CO2 in the air.
Oil Sands/Tar Sands
 Oil Sands aka “Tar Sands”
• What are they?

• Where are they

found?

• How are they

extracted?
What are they?
• A mixture of sand or
clay, water and
extremely viscous
petroleum called
bitumin
• Often referred to as
unconventional oil
UCSD Physics 12

Tar Sands
• Sand impregnated with viscous tar-like sludge
• Huge deposit in Alberta, Canada
– 300 billion bbl possibly economically recoverable
– update: 2007 estimate from Alberta Energy at 133 Gbbl
• It takes two tons of sands to create one barrel of oil
– energy density similar to that of shale oil
• In 2003, 1 million bbl/day produced
– grand hopes for 3 Mbbl/day; or 4% of world oil production
– current rate is up to 1.3 Mbbl/day
• Production cost is about $30 per barrel, so economically
competitive

65
 Where are they found?
• Historically used by ancient
Egyptians, Sumerians, and
Persians for waterproofing
uses
• Primary reserves found in
Canada (Alberta) and
Venezuela
• 20% of US oil comes from
Canada, 50% oil sands
• Alberta has 54,000 sq miles
of oil sands containing 95%
of Canadian oil reserves
and 75% of North American
oil reserves
 Extraction
• 40-60m under the surface,
underlain by limestone
• Shovel and truck strip mining
operation
• After excavation, hot water and
caustic soda (NaOH) are added and
mixture is agitated, creating a
liquid with oil rising to the top
• Bitumen is much thicker and must
be mixed with lighter petroleum or
gas before it can be transported via
pipeline to a refinery.
• 2-4 times the amount of green
house gases as conventional
extraction
• 2 tons of oil sand needed to create
1 barrel of oil
– 90% extraction
Extraction
• Steam assisted gravity
drainage
– Two pipes, one on top for
steam, one under to catch
oil
• 60% recovery
• Cyclic Steam generation
– Steam injected into a well
at 300-340 degrees C
– Injected for a period of
weeks to months
– Drained for a period of
weeks to months
• 20-25% recovery