UNIT II – Lecture 1

Measurement of Distances

1
 01 Principles of different methods
of measurement

Outline 02 Methods of measurement

3. Distance measuring instruments

4. Source of errors and precautions

 Principles of Different Methods of
measurement.
One of the basic measurements in surveying is the determination of
the distance between two points on the earth’s surface for use in
fixing position, set out and in scaling.
✓Usually spatial distance is measured in 3D space.
✓Horizontal Equivalent is required.
✓In plane surveying, the distances measured are reduced to their
equivalent horizontal distance either by the procedures used to
make the measurement or by applying numerical corrections for the
slope distance.
 Principles of Different Methods of
measurement.

The method to be employed in measuring distance depends

on:
1. The required accuracy of the measurement and

2. The purpose for which the measurement is intended.

✓ However, early measurements were made in terms of the

dimensions of the body.
 Principles of Different Methods of
measurement.
Various ancient linear distance measurement systems:
1. Cubits - the distance between the tip of your index finger
to the elbow.

2. Fathom - distance between the tips of your index finger

when your arms are outstretched.

3. Foot: distance from the tip of a man’s big toe to the heel.

4. Rod - the sum of the lengths of the left feet of 16 men.

 Principles of Different Methods of
measurement.
Various ancient linear distance measurement systems:

5. Pace: is defined as one step.

6. Stride: is consider two steps

✓ A person can determine their pace by counting the number of paces necessary
to walk a distance that has been previously measured.

7. EDM 8. Taping 9. Chaining

 Methods of distance measurement
1. Direct method
➢ It is the method where the distances are measured directly on the field
using measuring equipment like tapes and chains.

2. Indirect method
➢ It is a method where the distances are not directly measured on the field
but measured indirectly by using other observed quantities.

3. EDM method
➢ The electronic distance measurement method does not require the use of
tapes. It uses the electromagnetic waves.
 Distance measuring instruments

1. Tapes
2. Steel bands
3. Chains
 Tapes
a. Cloth or linen tape
➢ Are closely woven linen.
➢ Are generally 10m to 15m in length
and
12mm to 15mm in width.
➢ Are light and handy but the
accuracy is
compromised as the length of the tape
varies with different circumstances.
 Tapes
b. Metallic tape
➢ Is a linen tape reinforced with brass
or
copper wires to prevent stretching.
➢ These wires are not visible to the
naked eyes.
➢ Are available in 10m, 20m 30m or
50m length.
 Tapes
c. Steel tape
➢ Are tapes made of thin steel. It has
higher accuracy than the metallic tape.
A steel tape of lowest degree of accuracy
is more accurate than a metallic tape.
➢ As steel tapes are delicate, they are
not used for measuring terrain with rocky surfaces.
 Tapes
d. Invar tape
➢ These tapes are made of an alloy of nickel
and
Steel, have very low coefficient of thermal
expansion.
➢ Are 6mm wide and available in 30m, 50m
and
100m length.
 Steel bands
➢ Consist of steel ribbon with a brass
handle.
➢ It is 16mm wide and available in 20m
and 30m length.
➢ The band is numbered at every meter
on one side and divided by brass studs
at every 0.2m length on the other side.
 Chains
a. Gunter’s chain
➢ It is 66 feet long and is divided into 100 links. Each link measures 0.66 ft.
➢ Tallies are used at every 10 links to indicate the number of links.

b. Engineer’s chain
➢ This chain is 100ft long with 100 links. Tallies are used.

c. Metric chain
➢ This chain comes in 5m, 10m, 20m and 30m length.
➢It is generally divided into 100 or 150 links. Each link measures 0.2m. Tallies
are used.
Chains
 Principles of Different Methods using EDM

The method using optical instrument is called EDM.

✓ EDM stands for Electronic Distance Measurer.

EDMs are very useful in measuring distances

that are difficult to access or long distances.
 Marking stations
1. Pegs (wooden/iron)
➢ Wooden pegs of around 15cm length and square or circular surface of 2.5cm
width and dia to mark the position of the survey station. When pegging on a
relatively harder ground, iron pegs are used.
 Marking stations
2. Ranging rods/poles
➢Are used to mark the position of a
station while ranging a line.
➢Are available in 2m or 3m length with
dia of 3cm. The length is divided into
equal parts of 0.2m and painted black
and white alternatively.
➢When a ranging rod comes in length of
4m to 6m, its called ranging poles and
is used for undulating areas.
 Marking stations
3. Plumb bob
➢It is a pointed metal weight used to transfer end points of the chain onto the
ground.
➢It is also used to check the verticality of ranging poles and while setting up a
station.
 Marking stations
4. Spirit level
➢ It is used to keep the two ends of the tape at the same horizontal plane.
➢ It is also used to level an instrument.
 SELECTION OF STATIONS

1. Main stations must be inter-visible.

2. Main stations must be accessible.

3. The station should be fixed such that the network

forms well-conditioned triangles.

4. Obstacle to ranging or taping should be avoided.

5. Base lines and check lines should be used to assure accuracy.

 Measuring Distances
➢ Distances are measured using chains and tapes.
➢To measure a line, the length of the tape has to be greater than that of
the line.
➢When the length of the tape is shorter than that of the line, the distance
is measured by a process called Ranging.

So what is Ranging???
➢Ranging is the process of marking a number of intermediate points on
a survey line joining two stations in the field so that the length
between them may be measured accurately.
 Classification of Ranging
a. Direct ranging
b. Indirect ranging

a. Direct ranging
➢ Used when end stations are intervisible.
➢ Intermediate points are fixed by direct observations from either of the end stations.
➢ Erect ranging rods or poles at each end of the line.
➢ Stand at about 2m behind the ranging rod at the beginning of the line.
➢ Direct the assistant to hold a ranging rod vertically at arm’s length at the point where intermediate
station is to be established.
➢ Check the positions of the rod by sighting over their lower ends.
➢ After confirming that the three ranging rods are in a straight line, signal the assistant to fix the
ranging rod.
 Classification of Ranging
b. Indirect ranging
➢ Used when the end stations are not intervisible.
➢ The intermediate points are fixed by interpolation or reciprocal ranging.
➢ Indirect ranging is carried out for two cases.

Case I - When the end stations are not intervisible due to raised ground/valley.

Case II - When the end stations are not distinctly visible due to large distance.
 Taping Operations Based on nature of Ground: Levelled

If the taping is done over level ground, the tape can rest on the
ground.
A taping crew consists of two people: the head tape person and the rear
tape person.
The head tape person takes one end of the tape walks down the line
towards the point.
If the distance is more than 100–ft, then the head tape person places a
taping pin at the 100–ft interval and the process is repeated
 Taping Operations Based on nature of Ground: SLOPED

If the taping is done over sloping ground, the taping must be done in
sections, referred to as breaking the tape.
 Taping Operations Based on nature of Ground: SLOPED

The pictorial demonstration of how taping is done along the sloping ground.
✓The sum of the horizontal lengths of breaks should be equal to the required HE.
 ACCURACIES and PRECISION
Accuracy is the allowance of a certain amount of tolerance (either plus or
minus) in a any measurements.

Precision demands exact measurement. Since there is no such things as an absolutely exact
measurement, a set of observations that are closely grouped together having small
deviations from the sample mean will have a small standard error and are said to be precise.

✓Depends on following things:

1. Type of equipment used
2. The purpose of survey
3. Techniques used for surveying
4. Expertise of the surveyors
5. Environmental conditions etc…
Sources of errors and precautions
Errors occur due to
➢ Displacement of the pegs
➢ Failure to observe the zero point of the tape
➢ Adding or omitting units by miscounting
➢ Reading from the wrong end of the tape or chain
➢ Reading wrong meter marks
➢ Reading numbers wrongly
➢ Wrong recording in the field book.