Introduction to Digital Electronics

Electronics is a branch of physics, engineering, and technology that deals with circuits consisting
of components that control the flow of electricity. Circuits and components can be divided into
two groups: analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has analog or
digital or a combination of these. Digital electronics or digital electronic circuits operate on digital
signals. In the early days, applications of digital electronic circuits were focused on computer
systems. Now digital electronics has been applied in a wide range of systems, such as
telecommunication systems, military systems, medical systems, control systems, and consumer
electronics.

Electronic systems can be divided into two broad categories: digital and analog. Digital circuits
are electric circuits that deal with the digital signals that have a number of discrete voltage levels.
To most engineers, the terms digital circuit, digital system and logic are interchangeable used in
the context of digital circuits.

Analog circuits involve quantities with continuous values. This section introduces some basic
concepts about digital circuits.

What is Digital Electronics

Digital electronics is the branch of electronics that deals with the study of digital signals, and the
components that is use or create them.

Components of Digital Electronics

Digital electronics or the digital circuit comprises various components that perform specific
functions. These components are divided into two categories:

 Active components
 Passive components

The active components are the transistors and diodes while the passive components are the
capacitors, resistors, inductors, etc.

Diodes
Diodes are manufactured using semiconductor materials. They are used for allowing the flow of
current in a particular direction. Different types of diodes are used in the construction of the
digital circuit.

Transistors

A semiconductor device with three terminals is known as the transistor. The main function of the
transistor is to amplify the signal, and it is also used as a switching device.

Capacitors and Inductors

The main function of the capacitor is to store electrical energy. A capacitor is made using two
conducting plates and between these plates, an insulator is placed. The change in the current is
resisted with the help of an inductor. They are used for storing electric energy in the magnetic
field.

Logic Gates

Logic gates are the basic components of the digital circuit with one output and more than one
input. AND, OR and NOT gates are the basic gates while NAND and NOR the universal gates.
EX-OR and EX-NOR are the special gates.
Battery and Switch

The conversion of chemical energy into electric energy takes place because of the battery. It is
used as a source of energy. The flow of electric current is controlled by using a switch.

Resistors

The flow of current in the circuit is opposed by the resistor. The fixed resistor and variable
resistor are the two types of resistors. All the resistors work on the basis of Ohm’s law.

Advantages of Digital System Over Analog System

 The transmission of data in digital systems takes place without degradation due to noise
when compared to an analog system.
 The digital system comes with noise-immunity, which makes the storage of data easier.
Whereas the analog system undergoes wear and tear, which degrades the information in
storage.
  The digital system comes with an interface with computers which makes it easy to
control the data. The system can be kept bug free by updating the software. This feature
is not available in the analog system.

Disadvantages of Digital System

Though the digital system has noise-immunity and better storage it does have disadvantages too:

 The energy consumed by the digital system is more compared to the analog system. This
energy is consumed in calculations and signal processing which results in the generation
of heat.
 These systems are expensive.
 The digital systems are fragile, that is if one of the digital data is misinterpreted, the final
data will change completely.
 Taking care of analog issues in digital systems could be demanding as analog
components are used in designing the digital system.

Applications of Digital Circuits

Digital electronics or digital circuits are an integral part of electronic devices and here are the
uses of digital circuits:

 The display of digital watches is designed based on digital circuits.

 Rocket science and quantum computing use digital electronics.
 The automatic doors work on the principle of digital electronics.
 Everyday encounters with traffic lights are based on digital circuits.

Number Systems

The number system or the numeral system is the system of naming or representing numbers. A number
is a mathematical value that helps to count or measure objects and it helps in performing various
mathematical calculations. There are different types of number systems in Mathematics like decimal
number system, binary number system, octal number system, and hexadecimal number system.

What is Number System in Maths?

A number system is defined as a system of writing to express numbers. It is the mathematical
notation for representing numbers of a given set by using digits or other symbols in a consistent
manner. It provides a unique representation of every number and represents the arithmetic and
algebraic structure of the figures. It also allows us to operate arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction and division.

The value of any digit in a number can be determined by:

  The digit
 Its position in the number
 The base of the number system

Before discussing the different types of number system examples, first, let us discuss what is a
number?

What is a Number?
A number is a mathematical value used for counting or measuring or labelling objects. Numbers
are used to perform arithmetic calculations. Examples of numbers are natural numbers, whole
numbers, rational and irrational numbers, etc. 0 is also a number that represents a null value.

A number has many other variations such as even and odd numbers, prime and composite
numbers. Even and odd terms are used when a number is divisible by 2 or not, whereas prime
and composite differentiate between the numbers that have only two factors and more than two
factors, respectively.

In a number system, these numbers are used as digits. 0 and 1 are the most common digits in the
number system, that are used to represent binary numbers. On the other hand, 0 to 9 digits are
also used for other number systems. Let us learn here the types of number systems.

Types of Number System

There are various types of number systems in mathematics. The four most common number
system types are:

1. Decimal number system (Base- 10)

2. Binary number system (Base- 2)
3. Octal number system (Base-8)
4. Hexadecimal number system (Base- 16)

Now, let us discuss the different types of number systems with examples.

Decimal Number System (Base 10 Number System)

The decimal number system has a base of 10 because it uses ten digits from 0 to 9. In the
decimal number system, the positions successive to the left of the decimal point represent units,
tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. This system is expressed in decimal numbers. Every
position shows a particular power of the base (10).

Example of Decimal Number System:

The decimal number 1457 consists of the digit 7 in the units position, 5 in the tens place, 4 in the
hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands place whose value can be written as:
(1×103) + (4×102) + (5×101) + (7×100)

(1×1000) + (4×100) + (5×10) + (7×1)

1000 + 400 + 50 + 7

1457

Binary Number System (Base 2 Number System)

The base 2 number system is also known as the Binary number system wherein, only two binary
digits exist, i.e., 0 and 1. Specifically, the usual base-2 is a radix of 2. The figures described
under this system are known as binary numbers which are the combination of 0 and 1. For
example, 110101 is a binary number.

We can convert any system into binary and vice versa.

Example

Write (14)10 as a binary number.

Solution:

Base 2 Number System Example

∴ (14)10 = 11102

Octal Number System (Base 8 Number System)

In the octal number system, the base is 8 and it uses numbers from 0 to 7 to represent numbers.
Octal numbers are commonly used in computer applications. Converting an octal number to
decimal is the same as decimal conversion and is explained below using an example.

Example: Convert 2158 into decimal.

Solution:

2158 = 2 × 82 + 1 × 81 + 5 × 80

= 2 × 64 + 1 × 8 + 5 × 1

= 128 + 8 + 5

= 14110

Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16 Number System)

In the hexadecimal system, numbers are written or represented with base 16. In the hex system,
the numbers are first represented just like in the decimal system, i.e. from 0 to 9. Then, the
numbers are represented using the alphabet from A to F. The below-given table shows the
representation of numbers in the hexadecimal number system.

Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Number System Chart

In the number system chart, the base values and the digits of different number systems can be
found. Below is the chart of the numeral system.
Number System Chart

Number System Conversion

Numbers can be represented in any of the number system categories like binary, decimal, hex,
etc. Also, any number which is represented in any of the number system types can be easily
converted to other. Check the detailed lesson on the conversions of number systems to learn how
to convert numbers in decimal to binary and vice versa, hexadecimal to binary and vice versa,
and octal to binary and vice versa using various examples.

With the help of the different conversion procedures explained above, now let us discuss in brief
about the conversion of one number system to the other number system by taking a random
number.

Assume the number 349. Thus, the number 349 in different number systems is as follows:

The number 349 in the binary number system is 101011101

The number 349 in the decimal number system is 349.

The number 349 in the octal number system is 535.

The number 349 in the hexadecimal number system is 15D

Number System Examples

Example 1:
Convert (1056)16 to an octal number.

Solution:

Given, 105616 is a hex number.

First we need to convert the given hexadecimal number into decimal number

(1056)16

= 1 × 163 + 0 × 162 + 5 × 161 + 6 × 160

= 4096 + 0 + 80 + 6

= (4182)10

Now we will convert this decimal number to the required octal number by repetitively dividing
by 8.

8 4182 Remainder
8 522 6
8 65 2
8 8 1
8 1 0
0 1

Therefore, taking the value of the remainder from bottom to top, we get;

(4182)10 = (10126)8

Therefore,

(1056)16 = (10126)8

Example 2:

Convert (1001001100)2 to a decimal number.

Solution:

(1001001100)2

= 1 × 29 + 0 × 28 + 0 × 27 + 1 × 26 + 0 × 25 + 0 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 0 × 20

= 512 + 64 + 8 + 4
= (588)10

Example 3:

Convert 101012 into an octal number.

Solution:

Given,

101012 is the binary number

We can write the given binary number as:

010 101

Now as we know, in the octal number system,

010 → 2

101 → 5

Therefore, the required octal number is (25)8

Example 4:

Convert hexadecimal 2C to decimal number.

Solution:

We need to convert 2C16 into binary numbers first.

2C → 00101100

Now convert 001011002 into a decimal number.

101100 = 1 × 25 + 0 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 0 × 20

= 32 + 8 + 4

= 44
Number System Conversion
As we know, the number system is a form of expressing the numbers. In number system
conversion, we will study to convert a number of one base, to a number of another base. There
are a variety of number systems such as binary numbers, decimal numbers, hexadecimal numbers,
octal numbers, which can be exercised.

In this article, you will learn the conversion of one base number to another base number
considering all the base numbers such as decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal with the help of
examples. Here, the following number system conversion methods are explained.

 Binary to Decimal Number System

 Decimal to Binary Number System
 Octal to Binary Number System
 Binary to Octal Number System
 Binary to Hexadecimal Number System
 Hexadecimal to Binary Number System

The general representation of number systems are;

Decimal Number – Base 10 – N10

Binary Number – Base 2 – N2

Octal Number – Base 8 – N8

Hexadecimal Number – Base 16 – N16

Number System Conversion Table

Binary Numbers Octal Numbers Decimal Numbers Hexadecimal Numbers
0000 0 0 0
0001 1 1 1
0010 2 2 2
0011 3 3 3
0100 4 4 4
0101 5 5 5
0110 6 6 6
0111 7 7 7
1000 10 8 8
1001 11 9 9
1010 12 10 A
1011 13 11 B
1100 14 12 C
 1101 15 13 D
1110 16 14 E
1111 17 15 F

Number System Conversion Methods

Number system conversions deal with the operations to change the base of the numbers. For
example, to change a decimal number with base 10 to binary number with base 2. We can also
perform the arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication on the number system.
Here, we will learn the methods to convert the number of one base to the number of another base
starting with the decimal number system.

Now let us learn, conversion from one base to another.

Decimal to Other Bases

Converting a decimal number to other base numbers is easy. We have to divide the decimal
number by the converted value of the new base.

Decimal to Binary Number:

Suppose if we have to convert decimal to binary, then divide the decimal number by 2.

Example 1. Convert (25)10 to binary number.

Solution: Let us create a table based on this question.

Operation Output Remainder

25 ÷ 2 12 1(MSB)
12 ÷ 2` 6 0
6÷2 3 0
3÷2 1 1
1÷2 0 1(LSB)

Therefore, from the above table, we can write,

(25)10 = (11001)2

Decimal to Octal Number:

To convert decimal to octal number we have to divide the given original number by 8 such that
base 10 changes to base 8. Let us understand with the help of an example.

Example 2: Convert 12810 to octal number.

Solution: Let us represent the conversion in tabular form.

Operation Output Remainder

128÷8 16 0(MSB)
16÷8 2 0
2÷8 0 2(LSB)

Therefore, the equivalent octal number = 2008

Decimal to Hexadecimal:

Again in decimal to hex conversion, we have to divide the given decimal number by 16.

Example 3: Convert 12810 to hex.

Solution: As per the method, we can create a table;

Operation Output Remainder

128÷16 8 0(MSB)
8÷16 0 8(LSB)

Therefore, the equivalent hexadecimal number is 8016

Here MSB stands for a Most significant bit and LSB stands for a least significant bit.

Other Base System to Decimal Conversion

Binary to Decimal:

In this conversion, binary number to a decimal number, we use multiplication method, in such a
way that, if a number with base n has to be converted into a number with base 10, then each digit
of the given number is multiplied from MSB to LSB with reducing the power of the base. Let us
understand this conversion with the help of an example.

Example 1. Convert (1101)2 into a decimal number.

Solution: Given a binary number (1101)2.

Now, multiplying each digit from MSB to LSB with reducing the power of the base number 2.

1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20

=8+4+0+1

= 13
Therefore, (1101)2 = (13)10

Octal to Decimal:

To convert octal to decimal, we multiply the digits of octal number with decreasing power of the
base number 8, starting from MSB to LSB and then add them all together.

Example 2: Convert 228 to decimal number.

Solution: Given, 228

2 x 81 + 2 x 80

= 16 + 2

= 18

Therefore, 228 = 1810

Hexadecimal to Decimal:

Example 3: Convert 12116 to decimal number.

Solution: 1 x 162 + 2 x 161 + 1 x 160

= 16 x 16 + 2 x 16 + 1 x 1

= 289

Therefore, 12116 = 28910

Hexadecimal to Binary Shortcut Method

To convert hexadecimal numbers to binary and vice versa is easy, you just have to memorize the
table given below.

Hexadecimal Number Binary

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
 9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
E 1110
F 1111

You can easily solve the problems based on hexadecimal and binary conversions with the help of
this table. Let us take an example.

Example: Convert (89)16 into a binary number.

Solution: From the table, we can get the binary value of 8 and 9, hexadecimal base numbers.

8 = 1000 and 9 = 1001

Therefore, (89)16 = (10001001)2

Octal to Binary Shortcut Method

To convert octal to binary number, we can simply use the table. Just like having a table for
hexadecimal and its equivalent binary, in the same way, we have a table for octal and its
equivalent binary number.

Octal Number Binary

0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

Example: Convert (214)8 into a binary number.

Solution: From the table, we know,

2 → 010

1 → 001

4 → 100
Therefore, (214)8 = (010001100)2

Practice Problems on Number System Conversion

1. Convert 14610 into a binary number system

2. Convert 1A716 into the decimal number system
3. Convert (110010)2 into octal number system
4. Convert DA216 into the binary number system
5. Convert 46528 into the binary number system

BCD Code
BCD code is an abbreviation for Binary coded Decimal codes. It is a numeric weighted code, in
which each digit of a decimal number is represented by a separate group of 4-bits. There are
several BCD codes like 8421, 2421, 3321, 4221, 5211, 5311, 5421, etc. The most common and
widely used BCD code is 8421 code.

What is Excess-3 Code?

The excess-3 code (or XS3) is a non-weighted code used to express code used to express decimal
numbers. It is a self-complementary binary coded decimal (BCD) code and numerical system
which has biased representation. It is particularly significant for arithmetic operations as it
overcomes shortcoming encountered while using 8421 BCD code to add two decimal digits
whose sum exceeds 9. Excess-3 arithmetic uses different algorithm than normal non-biased BCD
or binary positional number system.

Representation of Excess-3 Code

Excess-3 codes are unweighted and can be obtained by adding 3 to each decimal digit then it can
be represented by using 4 bit binary number for each digit. An Excess-3 equivalent of a given
binary binary number is obtained using the following steps:

 Find the decimal equivalent of the given binary number.

 Add +3 to each digit of decimal number.
 Convert the newly obtained decimal number back to binary number to get required excess-3
equivalent.

You can add 0011 to each four-bit group in binary coded decimal number (BCD) to get desired
excess-3 equivalent.

These are following excess-3 codes for decimal digits −

 Decimal Digit BCD Code Excess-3 Code

0 0000 0011

1 0001 0100

2 0010 0101

3 0011 0110

4 0100 0111

5 0101 1000

6 0110 1001

7 0111 1010

8 1000 1011

9 1001 1100

The codes 0000 and 1111 are not used for any digit.

Example-1 −Convert decimal number 23 to Excess-3 code.

So, according to excess-3 code we need to add 3 to both digits in the decimal number then
convert into 4-bit binary number for result of each digit. Therefore,

= 23+33=56 =0101 0110 which is required excess-3 code for given decimal number 23.

Example-2 −Convert decimal number 15.46 into Excess-3 code.

According to excess-3 code we need to add 3 to both digits in the decimal number then convert
into 4-bit binary number for result of each digit. Therefore,

= 15.46+33.33=48.79 =0100 1000.0111 1001 which is required excess-3 code for given decimal
number 15.46.

Self-complementary property
Excess-3 code is non-weighted and self-complementary code. A self-complementary binary
codes are always compliment themselves. The complement of a binary number can be obtained
from that number by replacing 0’s with 1’s and 1’s with 0’s. The sum of binary number and its
complement is always equal to decimal 9. In other words, the 1’s complement of an excess-3
code is the excess-3 code for the 9’s complement of the corresponding decimal number.
Advantages of Excess-3 Codes
These are following advantages of Excess-3 codes,

 These are unweighted binary decimal codes.

 These are self-complementary codes.
 These use biased representation.
 The codes 0000 and 1111 are not used for any digit which is an advantage for memory
organization as these codes can cause fault in transmission line.
 It has no limitation, and it considerably simplifies arithmetic operations.
 It is particularly significant for arithmetic operations as it overcomes shortcoming
encountered while using 8421 BCD code to add two decimal digits whose sum exceeds 9.

Boolean Algebra
Boolean Algebra is an algebra, which deals with binary numbers & binary variables. Boolean
Algebra is used to analyze and simplify the digital (logic) circuits. It is also called as Binary
Algebra or logical Algebra or Switching algebra. A mathematician, named George Boole
discovered a relation between mathematics and logic, based on this relation he developed a kind
of algebra in 1854 called Boolean algebra.

Boolean algebra basically developed based on logic TRUE and logic FALSE. On the other hand
all kind of digital devices work in binary method. This Boolean algebra is used in these digital
devices to solve mathematical and logical problem.

It is possible to solve all the mathematical and logical problems in digital devices by converting
logic TRUE and logic FALSE of Boolean algebra into 1 and 0 respectively.

The presence of electricity in a circuit on a digital device is assumed to be 1 and the absence of
electricity is assumed to be 1. In digital systems, voltage levels 0 to 0.8 volts are called logic 0,
and voltage levels 2 to 5 volts are assumed to be logic 1. In digital systems +0.8 volts to +2 volts
level are not defined.
Characteristics of Boolean Algebra:
 In Boolean algebra, only two digits ‘0’ and ‘1’ are used.
 As Boolean variables have two values, Boolean algebra is a much simpler method than
decimal algebra.
 Boolean algebra cannot use any fraction, logarithm, square, negative number, imaginary
number etc.
 In Boolean algebra, all mathematical operations are done only with logical addition,
multiplication and complement. No geometric or trigonometric formula can be used in
Boolean algebra.

The following elements are in Boolean algebra-

Basic symbols: Two basic symbol; TRUE/ON/1 and FALSE/OFF/0

Operators: Three Operators; AND ( . ), OR ( + ), NOT( ¯ )

Basic Operations:

AND Operation Or Logical Multiplication

OR Operation Or Logical Addition

NOT Operation Or Logical Inversion

Boolean variables: The variables used in Boolean algebra are called as Boolean variables. Whose Values
are changed and can be either 0 or 1. For example, C = A + B, here A and B are the Boolean variables.

Boolean constant: In Boolean algebra whose values will remain unchanged is called Boolean
Constant. For example, Y = A + 0 + 1, Here, 0 and 1 are Boolean constant.

Boolean complement: The value of any variable in Boolean algebra is 0 or 1. These 0 and 1 are
called Boolean complements of each other. Boolean complement is expressed with an ” ¯ ”
symbol. In the language of mathematics, A´ is the complement of A.

Boolean Postulates:
The rules followed by OR Operation ( Logical addition), AND Operation (Logical
Multiplication) and NOT Operation ( Logical Inversion) in Boolean Algebra is called Boolean
Postulates. Boolean Postulates are three types. They are-

 Boolean Postulates of OR
 Boolean Postulates of AND
 Boolean Postulates of NOT

Boolean Postulates of OR:

The rules followed by OR Operation ( Logical addition) in Boolean Algebra is called Boolean
Postulates of OR. The rule is – If any value among values is 1, result will be 1, Otherwise result
will be 0.

0+0=0

0+1=1

1+0=1

1+1=1

Boolean Postulates of AND:

The rules followed by AND Operation (Logical Multiplication) in Boolean Algebra is called
Boolean Postulates of AND. The rule is – If any value among values is 0, result will be 0,
Otherwise result will be 1.

0.0 =0

0.1 =0
1.0 =0

1.1 =1

Boolean Postulates of NOT:

The rules followed by NOT Operation ( Logical Inversion) in Boolean Algebra is called Boolean
Postulates of NOT. Complement of 1 is 0 and Complement of 0 is 1.

1´ = 0

0´ = 1

Note− The complement of complement of any Boolean variable is equal to the variable itself.
i.e., x′’=x.

Duality Theorem or Principle:

This theorem states that the dual of the Boolean function is obtained by interchanging the logical
AND operator with logical OR operator and zeros with ones. For every Boolean function, there
will be a corresponding Dual function.

Make the Boolean equations relations that we discussed in the section of Boolean postulates and
basic laws into two groups. The following table shows these two groups.

Group1 Group2
x+0=x x.1 = x
x+1=1 x.0 = 0
x+x=x x.x = x
x + x’ = 1 x.x’ = 0
x+y=y+x x.y = y.x
x + y+zy+z = x+yx+y + z [Link].z = [Link].y.z
x.y+zy+z = x.y + x.z x + [Link].z = x+yx+y.x+zx+z

In each row, there are two Boolean equations and they are dual to each other. We can verify all
these Boolean equations of Group1 and Group2 by using duality theorem.

Boolean Theorems:
Basic Theorems:
Annulment law – a variable ANDed with 0 gives 0, while a variable ORed with 1 gives 1, i.e.,
A.0 = 0
A+1=1

Identity law – in this law variable remain unchanged it is ORed with ‘0’ or ANDed with ‘1’, i.e.,

A.1 = A
A+0=A

Idempotent law – a variable remain unchanged when it is ORed or ANDed with itself, i.e.,

A+A=A
A.A = A

Complement law – in this Law if a complement is added to a variable it gives one, if a variable
is multiplied with its complement it results in ‘0’, i.e.,

A + A’ = 1
A.A’ = 0

Double negation law – a variable with two negation its symbol gets cancelled out and original
variable is obtained, i.e.,

((A)’)’=A

Commutative law – a variable order does not matter in this law, i.e.,

A+B=B+A
A.B = B.A

Associative law – the order of operation does not matter if the priority of variables are same like
‘*’ and ‘/’, i.e.,

A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
A.(B.C) = (A.B).C

Distributive law – this law governs opening up of brackets, i.e.,

A.(B+C) = (A.B)+(A.C)
A+(B.C) = (A+B).(A+C)

Absorption or Secondary law –:-This law involved absorbing the similar variables, i.e.,

A.(A+B) = A

A + AB = A
A’ + AB = A’+B

A+A’B = A+B

Postulates and Theorems of Boolean

Algebra Summarized
Assume A, B, and C are logical states that can have the values 0 (false) and 1 (true).
"+" means OR, "·" means AND, and NOT[A] means NOT A.

Postulates
(1) A + 0 = A A·1=A identity
(2) A + NOT[A] = 1 A · NOT[A] = 0 complement
(3) A + B = B + A A·B=B·A commutative law
(4) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C A · (B · C) = (A · B) · C associative law
(5) A + (B · C) = (A + B) · (A + C) A · (B + C) = (A · B) + (A · C) distributive law

Theorems
(6) A+A=A A·A=A
(7) A+1=1 A·0=0
(8) A + (A · B) = A A · ( A + B) = A
A · (NOT[A] + B) = A ·
(9) A + (NOT[A] · B) = A + B
B
(A · B) + (NOT[A] · C) + (B · C) = (A · B) A · (B + C) = (A · B) +
(10)
+ (NOT[A] · C) (A · C)
NOT[A · B] = NOT[A] + de Morgan's
(11) NOT[A + B] = NOT[A] · NOT[B] NOT[B] theorem
Boolean Algebra Truth Tables
Boolean Algebra Expressions can be used to construct digital logic truth tables for their
respective functions

As well as a standard Boolean Expression, the input and output information of any Logic Gate
or circuit can be plotted into a standard table to give a visual representation of the switching
function of the system.

The table used to represent the boolean expression of a logic gate function is commonly called a
Truth Table. A logic gate truth table shows each possible input combination to the gate or
circuit with the resultant output depending upon the combination of these input(s).

For example, consider a single 2-input logic circuit with input variables labelled as A and B.
There are “four” possible input combinations or 22 of “OFF” and “ON” for the two inputs.
However, when dealing with Boolean expressions and especially logic gate truth tables, we do
not general use “ON” or “OFF” but instead give them bit values which represent a logic level
“1” or a logic level “0” respectively.

Then the four possible combinations of A and B for a 2-input logic gate is given as:

 Input Combination 1. – “OFF” – “OFF” or ( 0, 0 )

 Input Combination 2. – “OFF” – “ON” or ( 0, 1 )
 Input Combination 3. – “ON” – “OFF” or ( 1, 0 )
 Input Combination 4. – “ON” – “ON” or ( 1, 1 )

Therefore, a 3-input logic circuit would have 8 possible input combinations or 23 and a 4-input
logic circuit would have 16 or 24, and so on as the number of inputs increases. Then a logic
circuit with “n” number of inputs would have 2n possible input combinations of both “OFF” and
“ON”.

So in order to keep things simple to understand, in this tutorial we will only deal with standard 2-
input type logic gates, but the principals are still the same for gates with more than two inputs.

Then the Truth tables for a 2-input AND Gate, a 2-input OR Gate and a single input NOT Gate
are given as:

2-input AND Gate

For a 2-input AND gate, the output Q is true if BOTH input A “AND” input B are both true,
giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = A and B ).
Symbol Truth Table

A B Q

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Boolean Expression Q = A.B Read as A AND B gives Q

Note that the Boolean Expression for a two input AND gate can be written as: A.B or just simply
AB without the decimal point.

2-input OR (Inclusive OR) Gate

For a 2-input OR gate, the output Q is true if EITHER input A “OR” input B is true, giving the
Boolean Expression of: ( Q = A or B ).

Symbol Truth Table

A B Q

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

Boolean Expression Q = A+B Read as A OR B gives Q

NOT Gate (Inverter)

For a single input NOT gate, the output Q is ONLY true when the input is “NOT” true, the
output is the inverse or complement of the input giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = NOT
A ).

Symbol Truth Table

A Q
 0 1

1 0

Boolean Expression Q = NOT A or A Read as inversion of A gives Q

The NAND and the NOR Gates are a combination of the AND and OR Gates respectively with
that of a NOT Gate (inverter).

2-input NAND (Not AND) Gate

For a 2-input NAND gate, the output Q is NOT true if BOTH input A and input B are true,
giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = not(A AND B) ).

Symbol Truth Table

A B Q

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Boolean Expression Q = A .B Read as A AND B gives NOT-Q

2-input NOR (Not OR) Gate

For a 2-input NOR gate, the output Q is true if BOTH input A and input B are NOT true, giving
the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = not(A OR B) ).

Symbol Truth Table

A B Q

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0
 1 1 0

Boolean Expression Q = A+B Read as A OR B gives NOT-Q

As well as the standard logic gates there are also two special types of logic gate function called
an Exclusive-OR Gate and an Exclusive-NOR Gate. The Boolean expression to indicate an
Exclusive-OR or Exclusive-NOR function is to a symbol with a plus sign inside a circle, ( ⊕ ).

The switching actions of both of these types of gates can be created using the above standard
logic gates. However, as they are widely used functions they are now available in standard IC
form and have been included here as reference.

2-input EX-OR (Exclusive OR) Gate

For a 2-input Ex-OR gate, the output Q is true if EITHER input A or if input B is true, but NOT
both giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = (A and NOT B) or (NOT A and B) ).

Symbol Truth Table

A B Q

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Boolean Expression Q = A ⊕ B

2-input EX-NOR (Exclusive NOR) Gate

For a 2-input Ex-NOR gate, the output Q is true if BOTH input A and input B are the same,
either true or false, giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = (A and B) or (NOT A and NOT B) ).

Symbol Truth Table

A B Q

0 0 1

0 1 0
 1 0 0

1 1 1

Boolean Expression Q = A ⊕ B

Summary of 2-input Logic Gates

The following Truth Table compares the logical functions of the 2-input logic gates above.

Inputs Truth Table Outputs For Each Gate

A B AND NAND OR NOR EX-OR EX-NOR
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

Examples
Minimization/Simplification of Boolean expression

When a Boolean expression is implemented with logic gates, each literal in the function is designated as
input to the gate. Minimization of the number of literals and the number of terms leads to less complex
circuits as well as less number of gates, which should be a designer’s aim. There are several methods to
minimize the Boolean function. Here, simplification or minimization of complex algebraic expressions will
be shown with the help of postulates and theorems of Boolean algebra. This minimization procedure is
not unique because it lacks specific rules to predict the succeeding step inthe manipulative process

Minimization refers to the process in which we simplify the algebraic expressions of any given
boolean function. This process is very important as it helps in the reduction of the overall cost
and complexity of an associated circuit.

This process in which we simplify the given algebraic expression present in a boolean expression
is known as minimization. This minimization is very crucial since it helps us in the reduction of
cost and the overall complexity of an associated circuit.

Here are some examples of Boolean algebra simplifications. Each line gives a form of the expression, and
the rule or rules used to derive it from the previous one. Generally, there are several ways to reach the
result.

Always remember the rules

Canonical Expression (SoP &PoS)

The different forms of canonical expression which includes the sum of products
(SOP) and products of the sum (POS), The canonical expression can be defined as
a Boolean expression which has either min term otherwise max term. For
example, if we have two variables namely X & Y then the canonical expression
comprising of min terms will be XY+X’Y’, whereas the canonical expression
comprising of max terms will be (X+Y) (X’+Y’).
Sum of Products and Product of Sums
The concept of the sum of products (SOP) mainly includes minterm, types of SOP, K-map, and
schematic design of SOP. Similarly, the product of sums (POS) mainly includes the max term,
types of product of sums, k-map and schematic design of POS.

What is a Sum of Product (SOP)?

The short form of the sum of the product is SOP, and it is one kind of Boolean algebra expression.
In this, the different product inputs are being added together. The product of inputs is Boolean
logical AND whereas the sum or addition is Boolean logical OR. Before going to understand the
concept of the sum of products, we have to know the concept of minterm.

The min term can be defined as, when the minimum combinations of inputs are high then the
output will be high. The best example of this is AND gate, so we can say that min terms are
combinations of AND gate inputs. The truth table of the min term is shown below.`

X Y Z Min Term (m)

0 0 0 X’Y’Z’ = m0
0 0 1 X’Y’Z = m1
0 1 0 X’Y Z’ = m2
0 1 1 X’YZ = m3
1 0 0 XY’Z’= m4
1 0 1 XY’Z = m5
1 1 0 XYZ’ = m6
1 1 1 XYZ = m7

In the above table, there are three inputs namely X, Y, Z and the combinations of these inputs are
8. Every combination has a minterm that is specified with m.

Types of Sum of Product (SOP)

The sum of products is available in three different forms which include the following.

 Canonical Sum of Products

 Non-Canonical Sum of Products
 Minimal Sum of Products
1). Canonical Sum of Products

This is a normal form of SOP, and it can be formed with grouping the minterms of the function
for which the o/p is high or true, and it is also called as the sum of minterms. The expression of
the canonical SOP is denoted with sign summation (∑), and the minterms in the bracket are taken
when the output is true. The truth table of the canonical sum of the product is shown below.

X Y Z F

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 0

For the above table, the canonical SOP form can be written as F = ∑ (m1, m2, m3, m5)
By expanding the above summation we can get the following function.
F = m1 + m2 + m3 + m5
By substituting the minterms in the above equation we can get the below expression
F = X’Y’Z + X’YZ’ + X’YZ + XY’Z
The product term of the canonical form includes both complemented and non-complimented
inputs

2). Non-Canonical Sum of Products

In the non-canonical sum of product form, the product terms are simplified. For example, let’s
take the above canonical expression.
F = X’Y’Z + X’YZ’ + X’YZ + XY’Z
F = X’Y’Z + X’Y (Z’+Z) + XY’Z
Here Z’+Z =1 (Standard function)
F = X’Y’Z + X’Y (1) + XY’Z
F = X’Y’Z + X’Y + XY’Z
This is still in the form of SOP, but it is the non-canonical form
Minimal Sum of Products

This is the most simplified expression of the sum of the product, and It is also a type of non-
canonical. This type of can is made simplified with the Boolean algebraic theorems although it is
simply done by using K-map (Karnaugh map).

This form is chosen due to the number of input lines & gates are used in this is minimum. It is
profitably useful due to its solid size, quick speed, along with low manufacture price.

Let’s take an example of canonical form function, and the minimal Sum of Products K map is

Schematic Design of Sum of

Product

The expression of the sum of product executes two-level AND-OR design, and this design
requires a collection of AND gates and one OR gate. Each expression of the sum of the product
has similar designing.
Schematic Design of SOP

The number of inputs and the number of AND gates depend upon the expression one is
implementing. The design for a minimal sum of product & canonical expression using AND-OR
gates is shown above.

What is a Product of Sum (POS)?

The short form of the product of the sum is POS, and it is one kind of Boolean algebra expression.
In this, it is a form in which products of the dissimilar sum of inputs are taken, which are not
arithmetic result & sum although they are logical Boolean AND & OR correspondingly. Before
going to understand the concept of the product of the sum, we have to know the concept of the
max term.

The maxterm can be defined as a term that is true for the highest number of input combinations
otherwise that is false for single input combinations. Because OR gate also provides false for just
one input combination. Thus Max term is OR of any complemented otherwise non-complemented
inputs.

X Y Z Max Term (M)

0 0 0 X+Y+Z = M0
0 0 1 X+Y+Z’ = M1

0 1 0 X+Y’+ Z = M2

0 1 1 X+Y’+Z’ = M3

1 0 0 X’+Y+Z= M4
 1 0 1 X’+Y+Z’ = M5

1 1 0 X’+Y’+Z = M6

1 1 1 X’+Y’+Z’ = M7

In the above table, there are three inputs namely X, Y, Z and the combinations of these inputs are
8. Every combination has a max term that is specified with M.

In max term, every input is complemented as it provides only ‘0’ while the stated combination is
applied & complement of minterm is a max term.
M3 =m3’
(X’YZ)’ = M3
X+Y’+Z’=M3 (De Morgan’s Law)

Types of Product of Sums (POS)

The product of the sum is classified into three types which include the following.

 Canonical Product of Sums

 Non – Canonical Product of Sums
 Minimal Product of Sums

1). Canonical Product of Sum

The canonical POS is also named as a product of max term. These are AND jointly for which o/p
is low or false. The expression this is denoted by ∏ and the max terms in the bracket are taken
when the output is false. The truth table of the canonical product of sum is shown below.

X Y Z F

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 1

0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 0
For the above table, the canonical POS can be written as F = ∏ (M0, M4, M6, M7)
By expanding the above equation we can get the following function.
F = M0, M4, M6, M7
By substituting the max terms in the above equation we can get the below expression
F = (X+Y+Z) (X’+Y+Z)(X’+Y’+Z)(X’+Y’+Z’)
The product term of the canonical form includes both complemented and non-complimented
inputs

2). Non – Canonical Product of Sum

The expression of the product of sum (POS) is not in normal form is named as non-canonical
form. For example, let’s take the above expression
F = (X+Y+Z)
(X’+Y+Z)(X’+Y’+Z)(X’+Y’+Z’)
F = (Y+Z) (X’+Y+Z)
(X’+Y’+Z’)
Similar although reversed terms remove from two Max terms & forms only term to show it here
is an instance.
= (X+Y+Z) (X’+Y+Z)
=
XX’+XY+XZ+X’Y+YY+YZ+X’Z+YZ+ZZ
= 0+XY+XZ+X’Y+YY+YZ+X’Z+YZ+Z
= X (Y+Z) + X’ (Y+Z) + Y(1+Z) +Z
= (Y+Z) (X+X’) + Y (1) +Z
= (Y+Z) (0) +Y+Z
= Y+Z
The above final expression is still in the form of Product of Sum; however, it is in the form of
non-canonical.

3). Minimal Product of Sums

This is the most simplified expression of the product of the sum, and it is also a type of non-
canonical. This type of can is made simplified with the Boolean algebraic theorems although it is
simply done by using K-map (Karnaugh map).

This form is chosen due to the number of input lines & gates are used in this is minimum. It is
profitably useful due to its solid size, quick speed, along with low manufacture price.

Let’s take an example of canonical form function, and the Product of sums K map is
 POS K-map

The expression of this based on the K-map will be

F = (Y+Z) (X’+Y’)

Schematic Design of Product of Sum

The expression of the product of the sum executes two levels OR- AND design and this design
requires a collection of OR gates and one AND gate. Each expression of the product of the sum
has similar designing.

Schematic Design of POS

The number of inputs and the number of AND gates depend upon the expression one is
implementing. The design for a minimal sum of product & canonical expression using OR-AND
gates is shown above.

Thus, this is all about Canonical Forms: Sum of Products and Product of Sums, schematic design,
K-map, etc. From the above information finally, we can conclude that a Boolean expression
consists completely any of minterm otherwise maxterm is named as the canonical expression.

Integrated Circuit’
integrated circuit (IC), also called microelectronic circuit, microchip, or chip, an assembly of electronic
components, fabricated as a single unit, in which miniaturized active devices (e.g., transistors and
diodes) and passive devices (e.g., capacitors and resistors) and their interconnections are built up on a
thin substrate of semiconductor material (typically silicon). The resulting circuit is thus a small
monolithic “chip,” which may be as small as a few square centimetres or only a few square millimetres.
The individual circuit components are generally microscopic in size.

Summarily, an integrated circuit (IC) is a small semiconductor-based electronic device consisting

of fabricated transistors, resistors and capacitors. Integrated circuits are the building blocks of
most electronic devices and equipment.

An integrated circuit is also known as a chip or microchip.

A integrated circuit is built with the primary objective of embedding as many transistors as possible on a
single semiconductor chip with numbers reaching in the billions as of 2012.

According to their design assembly, integrated circuits have undergone several generations of
advancements and developments such as:

 Small Scale Integration (SSI): Ten to hundreds of transistors per chip

 Medium Scale Integration (MSI): Hundreds to thousands of transistors per chip
 Large Scale Integration (LSI): Thousands to several hundred thousand transistors per chip
 Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI): Up to 1 million transistors per chip
 Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI): This represents a modern IC with millions and billions of
transistors per chip

An IC can be further classified as being digital, analog or a combination of both. The most common
example of a modern IC is the computer processor, which consists of billions of fabricated transistors,
logic gates and other digital circuitry.
Important characteristics of digital ICs
1. Fan out
2. Power dissipation
3. Propagation Delay
4. Noise Margin
5. Fan In
6. Operating temperature
7. Power supply requirements

1. Fan-out

Fan out specifies the number of standard loads that the output of the gate can drive
without impairment of its normal operation

2. power dissipation

Power dissipation is measure of power consumed by the gate when fully driven by all its
inputs.

3. propagation delay

Propagation delay is the average transition delay time for the signal to propagate from
input to output when the signals change in value. It is expressed in ns.

4. Noise margin

It is the maximum noise voltage added to an input signal of a digital circuit that does not
cause an undesirable change in the circuit output. It is expressed in volts.
5. Fan in

Fan in is the number of inputs connected to the gate without any degradation in the
voltage level.

Logic Families in Digital Electronics - TTL, CMOS, and ECL

Most electronic systems which are responsible for modern advances are based on digital
technology. All digital systems, computers and microprocessors are assembled from simple
circuits called logic circuits. The basic building blocks of logic circuits are logic gates. And logic
gates themselves are simple electronic circuits comprising of diodes, transistors and resistors.

Many logic families were produced as individual components, each containing one or a few related
basic logical functions, which could be used as "building-blocks" to create systems or as so-called
"glue" to interconnect more complex integrated circuits. A logic family may also refer to a set of
techniques used to implement logic within very large scale integrated circuits such as central
processors, memories, or other complex functions. Some such logic families use static techniques
to minimize design complexity. Other logic families, such as domino logic, use clocked dynamic
techniques to minimize size, power consumption and delay.

Before the widespread use of integrated circuits, various solid-state and vacuum tube logic
systems were used for logic circuitry operations. But these were not standardized and interactive
as the integrated circuit devices. The most common logic family in modern semiconductor devices
is Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) logic, due to lower power consumption, small sized
transistor, and high transistor density.

Types of Logic Family

The digital integrated circuits are designed using bipolar devices or Metal Oxide
Semiconductor (MOS) or a combination of both. There are two kinds of semiconductor devices.
The logic family which falls under the first kind Bipolar logic family and the other is Unipolar
logic family.

Bipolar Logic Family

There are two kinds of operations in bipolar integrated circuits: Saturated Bipolar Logic family
and Non-saturated Bipolar Logic family.

Saturated Bipolar Logic Families are:

1. Diode logic (DL)

2. Resistor Transistor Logic (RTL)
3. Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
4. Integrated Injection Logic (IIL or I2L)
5. Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL)

Non-saturated Bipolar Logic Families are:

1. Schottky TTL
2. Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)

Unipolar Logic Family

Unipolar logic family consists of Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) logic families. They are:

1. P-type MOS (PMOS) Logic

2. N-type MOS (NMOS) logic
3. Complementary MOS (CMOS) logic
4. Bipolar MOS (BiMOS) logic
5. Bipolar CMOS (BiCMOS) logic
Classification of Logic Family
Logic families are mainly classified as Bipolar Logic Families and Unipolar Logic Families.

1. Bipolar Logic Families: It mainly uses bipolar devices like diodes, transistors in
addition to passive elements like resistors and capacitors. These are sub classified as
saturated bipolar logic family and unsaturated bipolar logic family.
1. Saturated Bipolar Logic Family: In this family the transistors used in ICs are
driven into saturation. For example:
1. Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)
2. Resistor-Transistor Logic (RTL)
3. Direct Coupled Transistor Logic (DCTL)
4. Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
5. High Threshold Logic(HTL)
6. Integrated Injection Logic (IIL or I 2 L)
2. Unsaturated bipolar logic family: In this family the transistors used in IC is
not driven into saturation. For example:
1. Schottky TTL
2. Emitter Coupled Logic(ECL)
2. Unipolar Logic Families: It mainly uses Unipolar devices like MOSFETs in addition
to passive elements like resistors and capacitors. These logic families have the
advantages of high speed and lower power consumption than Bipolar families. These are
classified as:
1. PMOS or P-Channel MOS Logic Family
2. NMOS or N-Channel MOS Logic Family
3. CMOS Logic Family

Features of Logic Families

1. TTL - Transistor-Transistor Logic: Standard logic family; used for the longest time.
2. ECL - Emitter Coupled Logic: Suitable for systems requiring high-speed operations.
3. MOS - Metal Oxide Semiconductor Logic: Suitable for systems with high component
density.
4. CMOS - Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Logic: Suitable for systems with
low power consumption (VLSI circuits). Gradually becomes the dominant logic family.