Chapter 13

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

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• Describe the absorption of light energy in the light

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dependent stage of photosynthesis.

• Explain the transfer of this energy to the light

independent stage of photosynthesis and its use in the

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production of complex organic molecules.

• Describe the role of chloroplast pigments in the

absorption of light energy.

• Discuss how the structure of a chloroplast fits it for its

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functions.

• Explain how environment factors influence the rate of

photosynthesis .
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• Describe how C4 plants are adapted for high rates of

carbon dioxide fixation at high temperature.
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Dr..Nihal Gabr 030 A2 cambridge study notes

 1 Ways of nutrition:

The nutrition of organisms can be divided into two broad categories:

• Heterotrophic nutrition: involves the break down of complex organic molecules into
simple soluble ones. Animals , fungi and some bacteria are heterotrophs
• Autotrophic nutrition: involves the build up of simple inorganic molecules such as carbon
dioxide and water into complex organic ones like lipids, carbohydrates and proteins using
energy from light or from chemical [Link], algae and some bacteria are

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autotrophs.

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- The word autotroph means self feeding and refers to these organisms such as plants that
have no oblivious means of obtaining or digesting food- no mouth, no teeth , no alimentary
canal,etc. Instead of obtaining their food by consuming complex organic molecules , they

Photo autotrophs lG
manufacture their own from simple inorganic substances using energy from two possible
sources.

Use light as their source of energy to

Chemo autotrophs
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Use energy from certain chemical reactions.
drive the process of photosynthesis . The process is far less common than
Examples of photo autotrophs include photosynthesis, but takes place in the
green plants , algae and photosynthetic nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria that are
bacteria (e.g cyanobacteria). important in the nitrogen cycle.
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2 An outline of photosynthesis
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The process of photosynthesis is the trapping (fixation) of

carbon dioxide and its subsequent reduction to
carbohydrates using hydrogen from water . It takes place
inside chloroplast.

Dr..Nihal Gabr 031 A2 cambridge study notes

 Important notice;
Learn that the equation for
n=6 .
Carbon dioxide and water are
raw materials , simple sugars
are are the products and
oxygen is the by-product of
photosynthesis

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Two sets of reactions are involved.

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• light dependent reactions, for which light energy is necessary.
reactions that occur in the thylakoids of chloroplast to transfer light energy to chemical energy and
so produce ATP and reduced NADP.
Light energy is necessary for the splitting (photolysis) of water into hydrogen and oxygen; oxygen is
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a waste product.
• Light independent reactions, for which light energy is not needed.
reactions that occur in the stroma of chloroplasts to form triose phosphate (TP) using ATP and
reduced NADPH from light dependent stage and carbon dioxide.
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Dr

Dr..Nihal Gabr 032 A2 cambridge study notes

 3 Structure and function of chloroplast

A Leaf structure:

Photosynthesis takes place largely in the leaf , adaptation of leaves include:

• A large Surface area that collects as much sunlight as possible.

• A thin lamina (leaf blade), to keep diffusion distance short.

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• A transparent cuticle and epidermis that let light through to photosynthetic palisade
cells beneath.

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• The numerous stomata for gaseous exchange that open and close in response to
changes in light intensity.
• Many airspaces, especially in the spongy mesophyll , to allow diffusion of carbon
dioxide and water vapour.

B
Palisade mesophyll
cells adaptation
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• A network of vascular tissue made up xylem that brings water to the leaf cells and
phloem that carries away the sugars produced in photosynthesis.
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Palisade mesophyll cells are adapted to carry out photosynthesis because they :

• Are closely packed and thin walled to absorb maximum light.

• Are arranged vertically so there are fewer cross walls that could filter out the
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light.
• Are packed with numerous chloroplast that move within the cells and are
arranged in the best positions to collect the maximum quantity of light. Also
advantage of their movement within the palisade cells is to avoid damage by high
light intensities.
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• Have a large vacuole that pushes the cytoplasm and chloroplasts to the edge of
the cell allowing them to absorb maximum light and leave a short diffusion
pathway for carbon dioxide.
• Have large surface area and moist , thin walls for rapid diffusion of gases.

Dr..Nihal Gabr 033 A2 cambridge study notes

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Dr..Nihal Gabr 034 A2 cambridge study notes

 C Structure and role of
chloroplast in photosynthesis

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Structure ( 3-10μm) Composition
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Envelop Double membrane bound organelle- with Protein carriers allow export of triose
outer and inner membrane . phosphate and entry of ions e.g. phosphate
Each composed of phospholipid bilayer , magnesium, and nitrate.
and proteins.
Stroma Colorless, fluid , protein- rich region Site where light independent stage takes
surrounding the grana; contains starch place.
grains and lipid droplets . And small Enzymes ( Rubisco) catalyse reactions to fix
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circular DNA, 70S ribosomes , many carbon dioxide and produce biological
enzyme molecules are present. molecules , such as lipids, hexoses, starch,
amino acids and proteins.

Granum (plural grana) Stack of membranous sac called Granal membrane Provides a large surface
thylakoids. area for light absorption and protein
complexes of the light dependent stage.
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Thylakoid Membrane-bound flattened sac, Protein complexes pump protons into

membrane contains photosystems with thylakoid space inside the sac
pigments , electron carriers, proton Granal membranes have manyATP synthase
pumps and ATP synthase. forms ATP by chemiosmosis.
Has electron carriers with their arrangement
to make ETC.
Circular DNA Circular loops of double stranded DNA DNA codes for some of the protein used in
(like those of prokaryotes) the chloroplast ; genes are transcribed as
mRNA ( the rest of chloroplast proteins are
coded by nuclear DNA)
70S ribosome Smaller than ribosomes on RER and Translation -assembly of amino acids to
within the cytosol; same size as those in form proteins.
Dr..Nihal Gabr mitochondria. 035 A2 cambridge study notes
 D Chloroplast pigments

There are number of pigments found in chloroplast that act together to capture light necessary for
photosynthesis. These different photosynthetic pigments absorb different wavelengths of light.
Plants absorb light in the visual part of the electromagnetic spectrum between wavelengths of 400
and 700 nm .
The pigments absorb most strongly at either end of this range- in the blue-violet and red regions of
the spectrum.

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When white light is shone onto a suspension of chloroplast made from a leaf, light in these regions
( red and blue-violet) is absorbed and light in the green region is reflected ,so leaves appear

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green( plants appear green as they contain chlorophyll that reflects green light)
This pattern of absorption is an absorption spectrum( a graph that shows the absorption of
different wavelengths of light by a a pigment).
An action spectrum is a graph of the rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths of
light.

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Absorption spectra of
Action spectrum
chlorophylls a and b , and
carotenoid pigments.
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When light of different wavelengths is

When white light is shone onto a shone at a suspension of chloroplast or
suspension of chloroplast made from a unicellular algae, the rate of
leaf, light in these regions ( red and photosynthesis can be determined .
blue-violet) is absorbed and light in the The most effective wavelengths are the
green region is reflected ,so leaves blue and red regions and the least
appear green. effective are in the green region.

This shows the effectiveness of the different

wavelengths, which is of course-related to their
absorption and to their energy content.
The shorter the wave length, the greater the energy it
contains
Dr..Nihal Gabr 036 A2 cambridge study notes
 The photosynthetic pigments of higher plants form two groups:
A). Chlorophylls (primary pigment)
B). Carotenoids ( accessory pigments) .

Group Pigment Colour Peak Function in photosynthesis

Absorption/nm

Chlorophylls Chlorophyll a Yellow-green 430, 662 Absorbs red an blue-violet light

Chlorophyll b Blue-green 453, 642 Absorbs red an blue-violet light

Carotenoids β-carotene Orange 450 Absorb blue-violet light.

May also protect chlorophylls from

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Xanthophyll Yellow 450 to 470 damage from light and oxygen.
Absorbs wavelengths that

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chlorophylls are poor at
[Link] pass the energy
they capture to chlorophyll a for
use in light depent stage.

Chlorophyll

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Chlorophylls are made up of a complex ring
called porphyrin ring, which has the same
basic structure as the haem group of
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haemoglobin but at its center there is a
magnesium atom.

Carotene and
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xanthophyll

They have a basic structure comprising two small

rings linked by a long hydrocarbon chain.
They range in colour from pale yellow to orange.
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The greater the number of double bonds in the

hydrocarbon chain, the deeper the colour.
Known as accessory pigments because they are not
directly involved in light dependent reaction of
photosynthesis.

Dr..Nihal Gabr 037 A2 cambridge study notes

 E Chromatography

• The various photosynthetic group pigments can

be separated from one another by means of
chromatography .
• It involves moving the mixture of molecules over
a stationary phase . The separation of the
molecules depends on their solubility and
molecular mass.
• To separate photosynthetic pigments, the

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mixture of pigments is concentrated in a spot at

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one end of a paper strip and then dipped in a
solvent which moves up the paper by capillarity,
carrying the molecules with it.
• The different pigments separate out at different

•
distances from the original spot.

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Each pigment can be identified by its Rf value , calculated by: dividing the distance travelled by
the pigment by the distance travelled by the solvent.
For any particular solvent used, each pigment has a
characteristic Rf value.
Important notice;
Rf (retention ) values do not have
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units and are expressed as a
single number: Rf= 0 , substance
insoluble in the solvent, Rf = 1 ,
completely soluble.
F Light harvesting
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The photosynthetic pigments involved fall into

two categories :
Primary pigments and accessory pigments.

The pigments (primary and accessory) in

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chloroplast are arranged in light harvesting

clusters called photosystems ;
- Each photosystem consists of : accessory
pigments ( any photosynthetic pigment that absorbs light and passes the energy to reaction centers in PSI and
PSII) and proteins arranged around a reaction centre containing a pair of chlorophyll a molecules
(primary pigment)
- in each photosystem, the different pigments are arranged in the thylakoid in funnel- like
structures, each pigment passes energy to the next member of the cluster, finally feeding it to
the chlorophyll a reaction center (primary pigment)
Dr..Nihal Gabr 038 A2 cambridge study notes
- There are two types of photosystems involved in photosynthesis:

Photosystem I Photosystem II
(PSI) (PSII)
Has a reaction center Has a reaction center
( chlorophyll a P700) with a light ( chlorophyll a P680) with a light
absorption peak of 700nm and is absorption peak of 680nm and is
therefore known as P700. therefore known as P680.

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Mostly occurs on inter-granal Mostly occurs on granal lamella of
lamella of chloroplast. chloroplast.

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4 Photosynthesis (light dependent stage)

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• The light dependent reactions include the splitting of water by photolysis to give hydrogen
ions (protons) and the synthesis of ATP in photo phosphorylation( the process that takes
place in photosynthesis to use light energy to drive the formation of ATP)
• The hydrogen ions combine with a carrier NADP to make reduced NADP .
• ATP and reduced NADPH are passed from light dependent to the light independent
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reactions.

A The accessory pigment absorb light of many wavelengths not really absorbed by
primary pigment and the energy is transferred to the pair of chlorophyll a
molecules in the reaction centers of PSI and PSII.
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B The energy excites electrons in each chlorophyll a molecule and are taken up by a
molecule called electron carrie or electron acceptor, there are two pathways that
the electrons can take in the electron transport chain (ETC) which are cyclic or non cyclic
photo phosphorylation ( depending on the pattern of electron flow in one or both types of
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photosystems .)

Non cyclic Important notice;

cyclic
There are three ways in
photophosphorylation photophosphorylation
which oxidation and
reduction can be described:
Involves photolysis of water and Oxidation- loss of electron or Involves the production of ATP
production of reduced NADP and loss of hydrogen or gain of without photolysis of water or
ATP. Electrons travel from PSII oxygen production of reduced NADP .
to PSI and then to NADP.
Reduction- gain of electrons Electrons travel from PSI but
or gain of hydrogen or loss of instead of reaching NADP they
oxygen. returnstudy
to PSI.
Dr..Nihal Gabr 039 A2 cambridge notes
 1. Cyclic photophosphorylation

• Light energy absorbed by accessory pigments in PSI is transferred to the reaction center
• Electrons are excited in P700 and raised to higher energy level.
• Electrons are emitted from the primary pigments of reaction centers (PSI).
• The electrons are passed along the electron transport chain from carrier to carrier.
• Energy is released in small packets and is used by carrier molecules to pump protons from
the stroma into the thylakoid Space.
• Protons accumulate in the thylakoid space , which now has a lower pH than the stroma,
giving an electrochemical gradient ( proton gradient forms)
• Where membrane is impermeable to protons except for channels through the protein ATP

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synthase.

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• As protons pass down their electrochemical gradient from thylakoid space to the stroma , the
active site of ATP synthase accepts ADP and a phosphate ion .
• The enzyme rotates and ATP is synthesised /produced .
• This reaction is phosphorylation by chemiosmosis.
• Electron returns to PSI

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2. Non cyclic photophosphorylation
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• Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll (using both photosystem I and photosystem II) .
• Electrons are excited and raised to higher energy level.
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• Electrons are emitted from the primary pigments of both reaction centers.
• The electrons are absorbed by electron acceptors( electron carriers) and passed along the electron
transport chain from carrier to carrier, leaving the photosystems positively charged.
• The primary pigment of photosystem I absorb electrons from photosystem II to replace its lost
electrons.
• Photosystem II primary pigments receives replacement electrons from splitting (photolysis) of water
using light energy.
• ( ATP is synthesised as the electron lose energy while passing along the carrier chain , as in
cyclic photo phosphorylation) .

Dr..Nihal Gabr 040 A2 cambridge study notes

 Photolysis of water

• It is the splitting of water as a direct consequence of

photo activation of chlorophyll.
• It occurs in the photosystem II , which is associated
with a water splitting enzyme known as oxygen
evolving complex .
• As Having lost an electron , the chlorophyll molecules
needs to replace it. In the case of non cyclic
photophosphorylation, it does this using electrons

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from water molecules that are split into protons,
electrons and oxygen according to following equation.

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The oxygen by-product is either used in respiration or
diffuses out of leaf as a waste product of photosynthesis .
The electrons replace those lost by the chlorophyll molecules to be used in ETC to release energy
and produce ATP by phosphorylation.

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The protons (hydrogen ion) combine with electrons from photosystem I and the carrier molecule
NADP to give reduced NADPH, which then enters the light independent stage to reduce carbon-
dioxide ( to reduce GP to TP)
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Dr..Nihal Gabr 041 A2 cambridge study notes

 Summary
Al, the processes of the light dependent stage are closely linked.
These events are summarised in the following figure, which illustrates the
zigzag energy levels of the electrons . As the diagram resembles a Z on its side , the
process called the Z scheme.

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1. Light energy is trapped in photosystem II and boosts electron to a higher energy level.
2. The electrons are received by an electron acceptor.
3. The electrons are passed from the electron acceptor along a series of electron carriers to
photosystem I. The energy lost by the electrons is captured by converting ADP to ATP
(phosphorylation by chemiosmosis) . Light energy has thereby been converted to chemical energy.
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4. Light energy absorbed by photosystem I boosts the electrons to an even higher energy level.
5. The electrons are received by another electron acceptor.
6. The electrons which have been removed from the chlorophyll are replaced by pulling in other
electrons from a water molecule.
7. The loss of electrons from the water molecule causes it to dissociate into protons and oxygen gas.
8. The protons from the water molecule combine with the electrons from the second acceptor (PSI)
and the reduce nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate ( NADP)
9. Some electrons from the second acceptor may pass back to the chlorophyll molecule by the
electron carrier system , yielding ATP as they do so. This process is called cyclic
photophosphorylation.

Dr..Nihal Gabr 042 A2 cambridge study notes

 Important notice;
Accessory pigments:
Any photosynthetic pigment that absorbs light of many wavelengths not really absorbed
by primary pigment and the energy is transferred to the pair of chlorophyll a molecules
in the reaction centers of PSI and PSII.

Photophosphorylation
The process that takes place in photosynthesis to use light energy to drive the formation
of ATP.

Non cyclic photophosphorylation:

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Involves photolysis of water and production of reduced NADP and ATP .
Electrons travel from PSII to PSI and then to NADP.

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Cyclic photophosphorylation:
Involves production of ATP without photolysis of water or production of reduced NADP.
Electrons travel from PSI but instead of reaching NADP , they return to PSI.

Photo activation of chlorophyll:

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Absorption of light , the passage of light to reaction center (in P680, P700) chlorophyll
molecules, and emission of electrons being raised to a higher energy level.

Role of light in photophosphorylation :

Is a source of energy
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Excite electrons to pass along the electron transport chain (ETC) for ATP synthesis
For photolysis of water.
And synthesis of reduced NADP

Role of thylakoid:
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Has electron carriers with their arrangement to make ETC.

Has ATP synthase to make ATP from ADP and Pi
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Cyclic Non cyclic

Electrons returned to Yes ( return to P700) No ( goes to NADP)
chlorophyll molecules directly
Photosystems involved I I and II
Photolysis of water involved No Yes
Products ATP Reduced NADP , ATP and
oxygen.

Dr..Nihal Gabr 043 A2 cambridge study notes

5 Photosynthesis (light independent stage)

• Molecules of carbon dioxide diffuses into

leaves through stomata and then diffuse
through the air spaces in the spongy
mesophyll. When they reach the cell surface
they dissolve in water on the cell surface.
They then diffuse through the cell wall, cell
membrane and cytosol and through the
chloroplast envelop into the stroma.

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• Carbon dioxide enters the active site of the
enzyme ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase( rubisco) together with the 5C
compound RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate)
•

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A carboxylation reaction occurs in which a
carbon-carbon bond is formed between
carbon dioxide and one of the carbons in
RuBP. This forms an unstable 6-carbon
compound which immediately forms into
two 3C compounds known as glycerate 3-
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phosphate (GP) . This substance is the first
product of carbon fixation.

• Some of the GP molecules are used to make amino acids, but most are reduced and phosphorylated
using ATP and reduced NADP from light dependent stage to make triose phosphate (TP) 3C sugar.
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• TP is a center of activity of metabolism as it can enter several different metabolic pathways . In the
chloroplast , TP can be:
1. Recycled to RuBP (most, about five sixth ,of TP are used to regenerate RuBP) using ATP.
2. Converted into hexose phosphates , which are used to make the polysaccharide amylose and
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amylopectin (starch energy storage) and cellulose ( for cell walls)..... this involves one sixth of TP
3. Converted into amino acids and fatty acids
4. Converted into glycerol and combined with fatty acids to make triglycerides (energy storage) and
phospholipids (membrane).
5. Converted to acetyl Co-A for use in respiration.

• Of every 12 molecules of TP produced, 10 are used to produce 6 molecules of RuBP and 2 may be
used to produce hexose or glycerol. Recycling RuBP is important because otherwise it would have to
be produced from something else.

Dr..Nihal Gabr 044 A2 cambridge study notes

 Rubisco is the most abundant and most important enzyme on Earth. Remember it is responsible for
fixing carbon so plants can make energy-rich compounds that can provide energy , be used for long
term storage and to be converted into all the biochemicals , including proteins and nucleic acids.

Role of NADP in light independent stage:

Donates hydrogen atom (H+ and ē) / hydrogen carrier.
Reduce GP to TP.

Role of RuBP in light independent stage of photosynthesis :

Carbon dioxide fixation
Where it catalyse the reaction between RuBP and carbon dioxide.
Production of GP

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Role of ATP in light independent stage:
Supplies energy/phosphate

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To convert GP to TP
TP Regenerate RuBP using ATP

How products of photophosphorylation are used in the calvin cycle:

Reduced NADP and ATP
Help convert the GP to TP
To regenerate the RuBP.

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How the illumination of chloroplast leads to optimum pH conditions for Rubisco:
Rubisco is found in the stroma where the light independent stages takes place.
Excited electrons leave the chlorophyll a/ photosystem.
And pass along ETC
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The protons present from photolysis , are pumped into inter membrane space .
So protons leaving the stroma raises the pH.

The digram of Calvin Cycle ,

including three main processes :
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1. Carboxylation- fixation of
carbon dioxide by reaction with
acceptor compound, ribulose
bisphosphate (RuBP).
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2. Reduction to form
carbohydrates
3. Regeneration- of RuBP using
ATP , so completing the cycle

Dr..Nihal Gabr 045 A2 cambridge study notes

 r
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Very important

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Dr..Nihal Gabr 046 A2 cambridge study notes

 6 Factors necessary for photosynthesis

There are three environmental factors that have the most influence on the rate of photosynthesis.

Light intensity and wavelength

Provides energy for photosynthesis so as the

light intensity increases so does the supply of
energy that can be absorbed by chloroplast
pigments in the thylakoids (stack thylakoid

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called grana) and used in the light dependent
stage.

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Temperature

Influences the activity of enzymes, so an

increase leads to an increase in enzyme activity
up to optimum temperature . Both light

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dependent and light independent stages
involves enzymes , but temperature has a much
greater effect on the light independent stage.
Optimum temperature of plants is 25°C .
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Carbon dioxide concentration

Carbon dioxide is the raw material for

photosynthesis , so as carbon dioxide
concentration increases so does the supply of
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carbon to be fixed in the light independent stage.

Optimum concentration of carbon dioxide for
consistently high rate of photosynthesis is
0.1%
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If temperature increases from 20 to 25°C:

At low light intensity:
Next

No effect / small effect of increase in temperature on

photosynthesis rate, as light intensity is a limiting factor.
Less ATP and Less reduced NADP from light dependent stage.
At high light intensity
Increase in temperature will increase rate of photosynthesis as
there is more kinetic energy of Rubisco and carbon dioxide so
more chance of effective collision and carbon dioxide fixation.
Limiting factors

Dr..Nihal Gabr 047 A2 cambridge study notes

 Limiting factors
• An external environmental factor that is present in shortest Read
supply and limits the rate of reaction(photosynthesis).
Photosynthesis is affected by more than one limiting factor .
• The rate of the process at any given moment is not affected by a combination of all the factors , but
rather by just one- the one whose level is at the least favourable [Link] factor is called the
limiting factor because it only limits the rate at which the process can take place .However much
the levels of the other factors change , they don’t alter the rate of the process.
Example of light intensity limiting the rate of
photosynthesis:

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1. In complete darkness, it is the absence of light
alone that prevents photosynthesis occurring.

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2. No matter how much we raise or lower the
temperature or change the concentration of
carbon dioxide, there will be no photosynthesis .
Light or rather the absence of it, is the factor
determining the rate of photosynthesis at that
moment.
3.

4.
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If we provide light ,however the rate of
photosynthesis will increase.
As we add more light, the more the rate
[Link] doesn’t continue indefinitely,
however, because there comes a point at which
further increase in light intensity have no effect on
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the rate of photosynthesis. • By looking at graph 1, the rate of photosynthesis
5. At this point some other factor , such as the increases as the light intensity increases (0 to A). light
concentration of carbon dioxide, is in short supply intensity is the LIMITING FACTOR. Beyond point A,
and so limits the process. light intensity is no longer the LIMITING FACTOR
6. Carbon dioxide now is the limiting factor and only since the rate remains constant even though the light
an increase in its level will increase the rate of intensity increases. So, we have to consider other
photosynthesis. factors that could cause the rate to become constant
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7. Further increase in carbon dioxide concentration (A to B).

levels will fail to have any effect.
8. At this point a different factor ,e.g temperature is • Graph 2 shows that the rate does not increase so
the limiting factor and only an alteration in its level much despite the temperature being increased from
will affect the rate of photosynthesis. 20 to 30°C (with the carbon dioxide being kept
constant). This means that temperature is not the
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actual LIMITING FACTOR. But if the conditions are

reversed, the temperature being constant and the
carbon dioxide being increased from 0.03% to 0.13%,
the rate increases (Look at graph 3). Both of these
indicate that carbon dioxide concentration is the
LIMITING FACTOR in A to B (Graph 1).

• The LIMITING FACTOR in E to F (Graph 3) is the

temperature. Increasing the temperature from 20 to
30°C causes an increase in the rate of photosynthesis
(Look at graph 4) though the carbon dioxide
concentration remains constant at 0.13%.

Dr..Nihal Gabr 048 A2 cambridge study notes

 A: on increasing carbon dioxide concentration, rate of
photosynthesis increases steeply , as carbon dioxide is
a rate limiting factor , where most Rubisco active sites
are free so more chance of effective collision and more
Carbon dioxide fixation.

C B: on increasing carbon dioxide concentration, rate of

photosynthesis increase less steeply as carbon dioxide
B is still a rate limiting factor with another limiting factor
being introduced which may be concentration of
Rubisco.

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A

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C: on increasing Carbon dioxide concentration, rate of
photosynthesis levels off as carbon dioxide
concentration is no more a limiting factor, another
limiting factor has been introduced , which is Rubisco
concentration , as all enzyme active sites are occupied

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• As light intensity increased, the volume of
oxygen produced and carbon dioxide
with substrate (carbon dioxide so Rubisco is working at
maximum capacity (v max.)
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absorbed due to photosynthesis will increase
to a point at which exactly balanced by the
oxygen absorbed and carbon dioxide
produced by respiration ... at which there will
be no net exchange of gases into or out of
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the plant. This is known as light

compensation point

• Further increase in light intensity cause an

increase in rate of photosynthesis and
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increasing volume of oxygen that will be

given off and carbon dioxide taken up.

• A point will be reached where further

increase in light intensity will have no effect
on photosynthesis . At this point some other
factor such as carbon dioxide concentration
or temperature is limiting the reaction .

Dr..Nihal Gabr 049 A2 cambridge study notes

 7 Growing plants in protected environments
• Farmers and growers of protected crop (e.g tomatoes , lettuce and
cucumber) in temperate countries have fully automated
glasshouses with Sensore and computerised systems that maintain
suitable conditions for high rates of photosynthesis .
• These systems:

Control light intensity using artificial lighting and shading .

Control temperature with heaters and ventilation.

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Enrich the carbon dioxide concentration of the air by burning hydrocarbons (e.g propane) or using

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tanks of liquids carbon dioxide .
Temperature and Carbon dioxide regulated digitally through monitor to give optimum conditions for
maximum rate of photosynthesis.
Supply water directly to the roots.
Use humidifiers to maintain a humidity appropriate for the crop.

•
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Supply mineral nutrients directly( fertilisers or manure) to roots at the concentrations appropriate to the
growth stage of the crop.
In the tropics, growers use plastic and mesh greenhouses to control the climate. Plastic protects
against heavy rain and the mesh provides protection against high light intensities and intense heat so
that salad crops are not scorched . Drip irrigation is used to reduce watering costs as water is supplied
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directly to the plants.
• Growing crops in protected environments has the added advantage of making it relatively easier to
control pests and diseases compared with field crops.

Important keywords for solving :

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1. Physiology : to mention the function and adaptation

2. Biochemistry : to mention what is related to chemical reactions
3. Anatomy : to describe structure

It is important as well to make sure while answering a limiting factor question to write down ,
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light intensity , or carbon dioxide concentration , and not just say light / carbon dioxide

Dr..Nihal Gabr 050 A2 cambridge study notes

A2 Biology Cambridge 9700 Topic checklist

2. Photosynthesis

a. photosynthesis as a way of nutrition and energy transfer

b. structure and adaptation of plant to photosynthesis
I. leaf structure
II. adaptation of palisade cells
III. structure and role of chloroplast

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IV. chloroplast pigments
V. light harvesting systems

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o PSI (P700)
o PSII (P680)
c. chromatography
d. photosynthesis

I.
I.

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light-dependent stage
o cyclic photophosphorylation
o non-cyclic photophosphorylation
e. factors necessary for photosynthesis
light intensity and wavelength
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II. temperature
III. carbon dioxide concentration
f. growing plants in protected environments
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Dr. Nihal Gabr NGBioTeam Prepared by Omar Magdy

051
 Revise topic’s main ideas

❖ Changes in the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations,

light intensity and temperature after the rate of
photosynthesis. These three factors directly affect different

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stages of photosynthesis. Complete the table below using a

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tick (✔) if the factor directly affects the stage or a cross
(❌) if it does not affect the stage.

Factor Stage ✔ or ❌
Carbon dioxide
concentration
Light intensity
lG Calvin cycle
Photolysis
Calvin cycle
Photolysis
✔
❌
❌
✔
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Temperature Calvin cycle ✔
Photolysis ❌

❖ The optimum 𝐩𝐇 for the activity of rubisco is 𝐩𝐇 8. Explain

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why the illumination of chloroplasts leads to optimum 𝐩𝐇

conditions for rubisco.
Light absorbed by chlorophyll pigments excite electrons, which are
released by chlorophyll and then captured to pass along ETC. energy
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released is used to pump Hydrogen ions in intermembrane space. This

increases 𝑝𝐻 in stroma, where rubisco is found, making it alkaline.

Prepared by Omar Magdy

052
 ❖ Describe the effects on a plant if its environmental
temperature rises well above the usual temperature range.
Increase in transpiration and stomata closes, so less photosynthesis.
Photorespiration takes place and less carbon dioxide is fixed to RuBP by
rubisco, rubisco denatures. This will eventually cause wilting.

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❖ Describe the differences and relation between both spectra.

ab
lG
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-Differences:
Absorption spectrum shows the absorbance of light at different
wavelengths, while action spectrum shows rate of photosynthesis at
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different wavelengths.

-Relation:
The light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used in photosynthesis, so
the rate of photosynthesis is greater at wavelengths absorbed most.
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Prepared by Omar Magdy

053
 ❖ Explain how non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces reduced
NADP and how reduced NADP is used in the light independent
stage.
In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, it involves photolysis of water and
both photosystems. light energy is absorbed by both photosystems and
excites electrons. Electrons released from PSI passing through ETC to
release ATP and together with Hydrogen ions released from PSII, they

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combine with NADP forming reduced NADP. reduced NADP reduces GP to

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form TP in light independent stage.

lG
iha
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Prepared by Omar Magdy

054