MODULE 2

Water Treatment: Objectives, Unit flow diagrams – significance of each unit

Water Treatment or water purification:

 The process of removing unwanted impurities present in water is water

treatment.

 Water treatment describes those processes used to make water more

acceptable for a desired end-use.

 Water purification is the removal of contaminants from untreated water to

produce drinking water that is pure enough for its intended use, most
commonly human consumption.

 The available raw water must be treated and purified before they can be
supplied to the general public for their domestic, industrial or any other uses.

 The extent of treatment required to be given to a particular water depends

upon the characteristics and quality requirements for the intended use.
 The processes involved in treating water for drinking purpose may be solids
separation using physical such as settling and filtration, chemical such as
disinfection and coagulation.

 World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines are generally followed

throughout the world for drinking water quality requirements. In addition of
the WHO guidelines, each country or territory or water supply body can
have their own guidelines in order for consumers to have access to safe
drinking water.
Objectives

 The aim of water treatment is to produce and maintain water i.e hygenically
safe, aesthetically attractive and and palattable in economic manner.

 Though the treatment of water would achieve the desired quality, the
evaluation of its quality should not be confined to the end of the of the
treatment but it should be extended to the point of consumer use it may be
desirable to treat a water for a number reasons including removal of
pathogenic organisms, unpleasant taste and odors, excessive colors or
turbidity or potential harmful toxic chemical impurities.

 To make it suitable for wide variety of industrial purposes such as steam

generation, dyeing etc.

Unit flow diagrams:

1. SCREENING

2. AERATION

3. FLOCULATION
4. PLAIN SEDIMENTATION

5. SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION

5. FILTERATION

6. DISINFECTION

7. SOFTENING

8. MISCELLANEOUS TRETMENT such as fluoridation, recarbonation, liming,

desalination
Significance of each unit:

1. SCREENING

Screening is done to carry out the remove all floating matter i.e heavy suspended
solid from the water. like:- plants, stones, animals, trees, etc.

Screening is generally adopted for the treatment of surface water.

Screening is done with the help of

1. Coarse Screen
2. Fine Screen

Coarse Screen:- Coarse Screen in the form of bar of size 10mm to 25mm having
spacing of 2200mm center to center.

5Fine Screen:- Fine screen iin the form of wire bruss of size 10mm
2. AERATION

It is the process in which water of brought intimate contact of air.

It removes undesirable gases. Co2, H2S.

It removes undesirable organic matter.

3. Floculation:- It is the process in which nutralize particle are in contact with each
other , so as to promote their resulting in increased size.

4. Plain Sedimentation:- Sedimentation is the process removes suspended particle

form the water which could not be removes in the screening process. ex: silt, clay
etc are to be removed
5. Sedimentation aided with coagulation: Fine suspended and colloidal
impurities and some bacteria are removed

6. Filtration:-This process employed to remove very fine particles and colloidal

matter which might have escaped from sedimentation process, micro-organisms
are largely removed hence

7. Disinfection:-It is the process of removing disease causing bacteria present in it.

8. Miscellaneous treatment: In order to make water fit for a particular use any
special treatment to be used
 AERATION
“It is the process of bringing the water in intimate contact with air, to absorb oxygen and to remove
undesirable gasses, taste and odour from the water”.

 In the aeration process, make the water to be in contact with the air, so as to absorb the
oxygen from the air and to remove the CO2, H2S gas.
 It may also helps in killing bacteria to certain content.
 It removes iron and manganese to a certain extent from the water.

Objectives of Aeration
Following are the objectives of the aeration process;

 To increase the dissolved oxygen content in the water.

 To remove the dissolved gasses such as CO2, H2S, CH4 etc.
 To remove objectionable odour and the taste present in water.
 To remove iron and manganese.
 To remove the oils and decomposing products of algae and thus helps in removing the
odour, taste and colour due to their presence.

The aeration can be carried out in following methods

 By spray nozzles
 By permitting the water to trickle over cascades
 By air diffusion
 By Trickling Beds

1) By Spray Nozzles

In this method, the water is sprinkled in air or atmosphere through special nozzles which breaks the
water into droplets, thus permitting the escape of dissolved gasses.

Carbon dioxide gas is thus considerably removed up to 90% in this method. However, considerable
head of water is required for working of these nozzles, which functions efficiently at a pressure of
10 to 14 m head of water.

2) By Permitting the Water to Trickle over Cascades (Cascade Aerator)

 This is also called as freefall aerator.

 In this method, the water is made to fall through a certain height of about 1 to 3 m over a
series of steps with a fall about 0.15 to 0.3 m in each step.
 The aerator should be installed in open air.
 The cascade aerators are efficient in raising the dissolved oxygen content of water but CO2
can be removed about 60 – 70% only.
 In a cascade aerator, the rate of flow may vary between 20 to 100 m3/h/m length of weir.
 To allow entrained air to mix in the water, each receiving basin should have a pool of water
 of water of depth 0.3 m to 0.5 m.

3) By Air Diffusion

In this method, perforated pipes are fixed at the bottom of the settling tanks. The compressed air is
blown through the pipes which come out in the form of bubbles.

During the upward movement of the air bubbles, oxygen gets absorbed by the water.

4) By Trickling Beds or Slat Tray Beds.

In this method, the water is allowed trickle down the beds of coke supported over the perforated
bottom trays and arranged vertically in series. Generally three beds are used, the depth of each
being about 0.6 m with a clear distance of about 0.45 m in between. The water is applied from the
top through perforated distribution pipes and allowed trickle down. During this downward
movement, the water gets mixed up with air, and aeration takes place.

This method gives better results than what can be obtained by cascades, but is effective than the
method of spray nozzles.
 SEDIMENTATION
“Sedimentation is a process of settling of particles in a basin”

Or

“The basin in which flow of water is retarded is called as sedimentation tank or basin or clarifier”

Most of the impurities present in water have a specific gravity greater than the water. In still water,
the impurities try to settle down due to gravity, although in normal raw supplies they remain in
suspension because of the turbulence in water.

If the turbulence is retarded by offering storage to the water, these impurities will settle down at the
bottom of the tank. This is the principal behind the sedimentation.

Theory of Sedimentation or Principal of Sedimentation

1) Velocity of Flow: The velocity of flow of water carries the particles horizontally. As the flow
area increases, the velocity will be decreases and hence more easily the particle will settle down.

2) Viscosity of Water: the viscosity varies inversely with the temperature, warm water is less
viscous and therefore offers less resistance to the settlement of the particle. However, the
temperature of water cannot be controlled to any appreciable extent in water purification processes
and hence this factor is generally ignored.

3) The Size, Shape and Specific Gravity of the Particle:

The greater is the specific gravity of the particle, more readily the particle will settle down and
spherical particle will settle readily.

Very small sized particle will settle very slowly. Therefore the size and shape of the particle affect
the settling of the particle.

Plain Sedimentation tank and its types

Sedimentation basins are generally made up of reinforced concrete and they may be rectangular or
circular in shape.

A plain sedimentation tank can remove about 70% of the suspended impurities present in water.

The sedimentation tanks can be basically divided into two types:

 Horizontal flow tank

 Vertical or up-flow tank

1) Horizontal Flow Tanks

The direction of flow of water in this tank is horizontal. In the design of horizontal flow tanks,
equal velocity of flow is maintained at all the points in the settling zone.

There are two types of horizontal flow tanks;

  Rectangular Tank with Longitudinal Flow
 Circular Tank with Radial Flow

a) Rectangular Tank with Longitudinal Flow

In this type of tank provided with mechanical scrapping devices, to scrap the sludge to the sludge
pit located usually towards the sludge to the sludge the influent end, from where it is continuously
or periodically removed without stopping the working of tank. Such tanks are called as
“continuous flow type sedimentation tank”. In this type of tank, the flow velocity is only reduced
and the water is not brought to complete rest.

In other type of tanks, mechanical scrappers may not be provided and the tank may have to be
cleaned by stopping the operation of the tank. In this type of tank, the raw water is simply stored
and kept at rest for a certain period of about 24 hours. During this period, the suspended particles
will settle down to the bottom of the tank.

The clean water from the tank is then taken out and tank is cleaned off the settled silt. Then the
tank is again filled with the water to continue the next operation and this type of basins are also
called as “fill and draw type sedimentation tank”

This necessitates the commissioning of atleast two tanks. Such intermittent tanks are usually not
preferred in modern day plants, as they lead to wastage of time and require more labour.

Therefore, continuous flow type tanks are used in these days. The working of such a tank is simple
as the water enters from one end and comes out from the other end. The velocity sufficiently
reduced by providing sufficient length of travel.
b) Circular Tank with Radial Flow

In this type of tank the water enters at the centre of the tank into a circular well provided with
multiple ports, from which it emerges out to flow radially outwards in all directions equally. The
water flows horizontally and radially towards the periphery of the circular tank.

The aim here is to provide uniform radial flow with decreasing horizontal velocity towards the
periphery from where the water is withdrawn from the tank through the effluent structure.

The sludge is scrapped to the central sump mechanically and continuously from where it is
withdrawn during operation.

2) Vertical or Upflow Sedimentation Tank

They are square or rectangular in plan and have hopper bottoms. The influent enters at the bottom
of the tank. The upflow velocity decreases with increased cross sectional area. The clarified water
is withdrawn through the circumferential weir.
When used with coagulants, the flocculation takes place in the bottom of the tank leading to
formation of blanket of floc through which the rising floc must pass. Because of these phenomena
these tanks are also called upflow sludge blanket clarifiers.

Design Consideration in Plain Sedimentation Tank

1) Overflow Rate or Overflow Velocity

It is the flow velocity at which the tank is designed to operate.

The flow velocity in the tank is called as overflow rate because water is flowing over the top of the
tank into the weir system.

This term is also called as surface loading rate i.e, discharge per unit area of plan (m3/d.m2)

Vo = Discharge/ Area

Usually overflow rate ranges between 12-18 m3/d.m2 of plan area for plain sedimentation tank and
between 24-30 m3/d.m2 of plan area for coagulation aided with sedimentation tank.

As long as the settling velocity of the particle (Vs) is greater than the Vo, the particles will settle
down and can be removed from the bottom of the tank, regardless the depth of the tank.

“The particle settling is independent of the depth sedimentation tank”

2) Detention Time (t)

Another important term considered in the design of sedimentation tank is detention time or
detention period.

“it is the average theoretical time required for the water to flow through the tank length” or “it is
the average time for which the water is detained in the tank”.

Hence it is the ratio of the volume of the basin to the rate of flow through the basin.

Detention time for rectangular tank,

D.T = (volume of the tank)/(rate of flow)

D.T = (BLH)/Q

Where B= width of the tank

L= length of the tank

H = Depth of the tank

Q= discharge through the tank

Detention time for circular tank,

D.T = d2(0.011d + 0.785H)/Q

Where, d= diameter of the tank

H = vertical depth at wall

Detention time is 4 to 8 hours for plain sedimentation tank and 2 to 4 hours for coagulation
sedimentation tank.

The width of the tank is kept equal to 10 m and should not exceed to 12 m and the length of the
tank generally taken as 4 times the width of the tank.

The horizontal flow velocity ranges between 0.15 m/minute to 0.9 m/minute, normally kept at
about 0.3 m/minute.

3) Displacement efficiency
The average time at which a batch of water passing through the atnk is calleda s flow through
period.

The flow through period always less than the detention period.

“The rate of flow through period to the detention period” is called as displacement efficiency.

Displacement Effciiency = (flow through period)/(Detention period)

It ranges between 0.25 to 0.5.

 SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION
Very fine suspended particles and colloidal cannot be settle down in the sedimentation tank. So
that by altering the size of the size of the particles converted into flocculated particles. For this
purpose certain chemicals are used called as coagulants.

When added the coagulants to the water after thorough mixing, forms a gelatinous precipitate
called as “floc”. Then the very fine suspended particles attracted towards the floc and their size
becomes increases to form a flocculated particles.

 The colloidal particle possesses, surface charges on their surface e. most of the colloidal
particles in water are negatively charged. The stationary charged layer on the surface is
surrounded by a bound layer of water.
 Thus bound layer of water is called as stern layer. This layer has a ions of opposite charge
drawn from the bulk of the solution, produce s a rapid drop in potential called as stern
potential.
 A more gradual drop, called the zeta potential occurs between the shear surface of the
bound water layer and the point of electroneutrality in the solution.
 The surface charge on colloidal particles gives them long term stability and hence the
particles which will settle down, but they remain in susupension.
 Coagulataion is a chemical technmique whjich destabilizezs the charged colloidal aprticles.
 Flocculation is the slow mixing technique which promotes the agglomeration of stabiliserd
particles.
 The entire process of addition of chemicals (coagulants) and mixing (flocculation) is called
as coagulation. The coagulated water is finally made to pass through the sedimentation
tank, where the flocculated particles will settle down and are thus removed.
  When the raw water has turbidity greater than 30 to 50 mg/l then it necessitates the
coagulation.
 But in actual practice, plain sedimentation is rarely used these days and the coagulation
before the sedimentation is followed and universally accepted in all major treatment palnts.

Chemicals used for Coagulation

Various chemicals like alum, iron salts (ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride, ferric sulphate) etc, are
generally used as coagulants. These chemicals are most effective when water is slightly alkaline.

In the absence of such an alkalinity in raw supplies, external alkalies like sodium carbonate or lime
etc are added to the water so as to make it slightly alkaline and thus it increase the effectiveness of
the coagulants.

1) Alum :

 Alum chemical name is aluminum sulphate (Al2(SO4)3.18H2O)

 When alum added to the raw water , it reacts with the bicarbonate alkalinities, which are
generally present in raw water supplies, so as to form a gelatinous precipitate (floc) of
aluminum hydroxide
 This floc attracts other fine particles of suspended matter and colloidal matter and thus in
their size and finally settle down to the sedimentation tank.

Al2(SO4)3.18H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 3CaSO4 + 2Al(OH)3 + 6CO2

 The above equation shows that, addition of alum to water imparts permannat hardness to it,
in the form of calcium sulphate. The carbon dioxide gas evolved causes corrosiveness.
 The amount of alum required for coagulation depends on the turbidity and colour of the raw
water. The use of optimum dosage of coagulant is determined by laboratory tests.
 The alum dosage of coagulant is determined by laboratory tests and it may vary from 5
mg/l for clear water and 85 mg/l for highly turbid water.
 Alum has proved to be effective coagulant and is now extensively used throughout the
world.
 It is cheap, forms excellent stable floc and doesn’t require any skilled supervision for
handling.
 The water obtained is quite clear, as it helps in reducing the taste and odour and turbidity.
 The main drawback is disposal of alum sludge.

2) Copperas as Coagulant

 Copperas is a ferrous sulphate with a lime chemical formula FeSO4.7H2O

 Copperas is generally added to raw water in conjunction with lime

FeSO4.7H2O + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + Fe(OH)2 + 7H2O

Ferrous hydroxide formed is further gets oxidized

4Fe(OH)2 +O2 + H2O 4Fe(OH)3

Therefore ferric hydroxide forms the floc and thus helps in sedimentation.

 Copperas is extensively used as s coagulant for raw water that are not coloured.
 It is generally cheaper than alum and works effectively in the pH range 8.5 and above, but
for a coloured water does not give a satisfactory results

3) Use of Chlorinated Copperas as Coagulant

When chlorine is added with copperas (ferrous sulphate), it will yield ferric sulphate and ferric
chloride.

The resultant combination of ferric sulphate and ferric chloride is called as chlorinated copperas
and is a effective coagulant for removing colour at lower pH.

Chlorinated copperas and lime has effectiveness in coagulation.

The resultant ferric hydroxide forms floc and helps in sedimentation. Ferric sulphate is quite
effective in the pH range 4 to 7 and above 9 and ferric chloride is quite effective in the pH range
3.5 to 6.5 and above 8.5.

The combination has proved to be very effective coagulant for treating low pH water.

Comparison of alum and iron salts as coagulants

The alum and iron salts having their own advantages and disadvantages

 Iron salts produces heavy floc and can remove suspended matter effectively than the alum.
 Iron slats are good oxidizing agents and can remove hydrogen sulphide and tastes and
odour from the water.
 Iron salts can be used over a wide range of pH values.
 Iron slats cause staining and promote the growth of iron bacteria in the distribution system.
 Iron salts imparts more corrosiveness to water than that which is imparted by alum.
 The handling and storage of iron salts require more skill and control, as they are corrosive
in nature. Whereas no such skilled supervision is required for handling alum.
JAR TEST

Laboratory Test for Determining the Optimum Dosage of Coagulant

 The sample of water to be tested is placed in a number of jars each having a capacity of 1
liter, normally six jars are used.
 Different quantity of coagulant are then added to each jar. Then the driving unit is started .
the paddles connected with driving shaft through stirring rods placed inside the jars are
thus made to rotate.
 Then the formation of the floc in each jar is noted.
 The amount of coagulant in the jar which produces a good floc with the least amount of
coagulant indicates the optimum dosage.

ELEMENTS OF CLARIFLOCCULATOR or COAGULATION SEDIMENTATION TANK

The coagulation sedimentation tank is also called as clariflocculator contains following four units;

 Feeding Devices
 Mixing Basin
 Flocculation Tank
 Settling Tank

The chemical coagulant either in dry or in solution form is fed into the raw water through the
feeding device. This mixture is then thoroughly agitated and mixed in the mixing basin.

The floc which iis formed in the mixing basin due to the reaction between water and chemical
coagulant and is then allowed to agglomerate in the flocculation tank

The flocculated water is then finally passed into sedimebntaion tank where these flocculated
particles settledfown and removed.

The resultant water of low turbidity can be taken out through the outlet of the sedimentation tank,
directly to the filtration unit.
1) Feeding Devices

There are two types of feeding devices such as dry feeding device and wet feeding device.

a) Dry Feeding Device

 These are the tanks with a hopper bottom and agitating plates are placed inside a tank so as
to prevent the arching or bridging of the coagulants.
 The powdered coagulant is then filled into the tank and is then allowed to fall into the
mixing basin.
 The dosage of the coagulant added is regulated by toothed wheel or a helical screew.
 The speed of the toothed wheel or helical screew is inturn controlled by connec ting it to a
venture device installed in the raw water pipes bringing water to the mixinhg absin.
 The quantity of the coagulant released is, thus controlled in propiortion to the quantity of
raw water entering the mixing tank.
b) Wet Feeding Device

 In wet feeding, the solution of required strength of coagulant is prepared and stored in a
tank, from where it is allowed to trickle down into the mixing tank through an outlet. The
level of the coagulant in the storage tank is maintained by the float controlled ball valve.
 When the rate of inflow of raw water enters into the mixing basin changes, the rate entry
coagulant also should changes.
 In order to make these two flows in proportion to each other a conical plug arrangement is
provided.
 The mixing basin and the float chamber are interconnected together, so that the water level
remains the same in both of them.
 As the flow of raw water increases, the depth of water and its level increases in the mixing
tank. Correspondingly the water level in the float cahmber increases and there by lifting the
float of the float chamber. As the float rises, the pinion and pulley rotates in the same
direction, thereby lifting the conical plug and allowing more quantity of coagulant solution
to fall down into the mixing basin.
 When the flow of water decreases, the conical plug descends down and allows the feeding
to continue at a lower rate.
 Thus, the constant head coagulant feeding tank automatically controls the dose of
coagulant.

2) Mixing Basin

After addition of coagulant, the mixture is thoroughly mixed, so that the coagulant gets fully
dispersed into the entire mass of water. This agiation of water gets achieved by thorough mixing.

There are two types of mixing basins

1) Mixing Basin with baffle walls

The baffle type mixing basins are rectangular tanks which are divided by baffle walls. The baffles
may either be provided in such a way that the water flows horizontally around their ends or they
may be provided as to make the water move vertically over and under the baffles.

The hinderness and disturbances created by the provision of baffles in the path of flow, give it
sufficient agitation, as to cause necessary mixing to develop the floc.

2) Mixing Basin Equipped with Mechanical Devices

The meachanically agitated mixing basins provide the best type of mixing as also the flocculating
devices. The chemical added to raw water is vigorously mixed and agitated by a flash mixer for its
rapid dispersion in water and the water is then transferred to a flocculation tank provided with a
slow mixer.

Mixing involves high degree of turbulence and power dissipation.

A typical flash mixer consist of rectangular tank provided with an impeller fixed to an impeller
shaft. The impeller is driven by an electric motor and it revolves at a high speed inside the tank.

The coagulant brought by the coagulant pipe and is discharged just under the rotating fan. The raw
water is sepeartely brought from the inlet end and is deflected towards the moving impeller by a
deflection wall. The thoroughly mixed water is taken out from the outlet end. A drain valve is also
provided to remove the sludge from the bottom of the flash mixer.

3) Flocculation Tank or Flocculator

The best floc will form when the mixture of water and coagulant are violently agitated followed by
a relatively slow and gentle stirring to permit build up and agglomeration of the floc particles.

Therefore, from the mixing basin the water is taken to a flocculation tank called a flocculator,
where it is given a slow stirring motion.

Rectangular tanks fitted with paddles operated by electric motors can best serve this purpose
 FILTRATION
To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still further and to produce potable and palatable
water, the water is filtered through the beds of fine granular materials such as sand.

“The process of passing the water through the beds of granular material is known as filtration”.

Filtration may help in removing the colour, odour, turbidity and pathogenic bacteria from the
water.

Theory of Filtration or Mechanism of Filtration or Principle of Filtration

The filters purify the water under four different processes:

(i) Mechanical Straining:

The suspended particles present in water and which are of bigger size than the size of the voids in
the sand layers of the filter cannot pass through these voids and get arrested in them. Therefore, the
resultant water will be free from impurities.

(ii) Flocculation and Sedimentation:

The filters can remove even particles smaller than the size of the voids present in the filter.

The void spaces acts like tiny coagulation-sedimentation tanks. The colloidal matter arrested in
thses voids is a gelatinous matter and therefore, attract other finer particles. These finer particles
thus settle down in the voids and get removed.

(iii) Biological Metabolism:

Certain microorganisms and bacteria’s are generally present in the voids of filters. They may reside
either initially as coatings over sand grains or they may be present during the initial process of
filtration.

These organisms require organic impurities as their food for their survival. Therefore, these
organisms utilize such impurities and convert them into harmless compounds by the process of
biological metabolism. The harmless compounds generally form a layer on the top Schmutzdelte or
dirty skin. This layer further helps in absorbing and straining out the impurities.

(iv) Electrolytic Changes

According to this theory, a filter helps in changing the chemical characteristics of water. The sand
grains of the filter media and the impurities in water carry electrical charges of opposite nature.

When these oppositely charged particles and the impurities come in contact with each other,
thereby changing the character of the water and making it purer. After a certain interval, the
electrical charges of sand grains get exhausted and have to be restored by cleaning the filter.
 Filter Materials
i) Sand

Either fine or coarse generally used as filter media. The layers of sand may be supported on gravel,
which permits then filtered water to move freely to the underdarins, and allows the washwater to
move uniformly upward.

The filter sand generally obtained from rocks like quartzite and should contain the following
properties.

 It should be free from dirt and other impurities.

 It should be uniform in nature and size.
 It should be hard and resistant.
 It should be such as not to lose more than 5% of its weight after being placed in
hydrochloric acid for 24 hours.

The selection of the correct effective size (D10) is very important, because too smaller size will lead
to very frequent clogging of filters, and will give very low filtration rates. Similarly, too large size
will permit the suspended particles and bacteria to pass through it, without being removed.

ii) Gravel

The gravel which may be used below the sand should be hard, durable, free from impurities and
should have a density of about 1600 kg/m3.

Types of Filters
The filters are classified based on their rate of filtration;

 Slow sand gravity filter

 Rapid sand gravity filter
 Pressure filter

SLOW SAND GRAVITY FILTER

In the older days slow sand filters were used to treat the raw water and the rapid sand filters
replaced it in the modern days.

However, they may be still preferred on smaller plants at warm palces, where covers on filters are
not required to protect the filter from freezing.
Construction of Slow Sand Filter

The various parts of the slow sand filter are discussed below;

i) Enclosure tank:

 It consists of an open water tight rectangular tank, made of masonry or concrete.

 The bed slope is kept at about 1 in 100 towards the central drain. The depth of the tank
varies from 2.5 to 3.5 m.
 The surface area of the tank may varies from 100 to 2000 m2, depending upon the quantity
of the water to be treated.

ii) Filter Media:

 The filter media consists of about sand layers about 90 to 110 cm in depth and placed over
a gravel. The effective size of the sand (D10) varies from 0.2 to 0.4 mm and the uniformity
coefficient (Cu or D60/D10) varies from 1.8 to 3.0.
 The top 15 cm layer of sand is very fine sand is kept and uniform in grain size. The finer
the sand, the purer will be the obtained filtered water, as more impurities and bacteria’s will
be removed.

iii) Base Material:

 The base material is gravel and it supports the sand bed

 It consists of about 30 to 90 cm depth of different size gravels, placed in layers. Generally 3
to 4 layers each of 15 – 20 cm depth are used.
 The coarsest gravel used in the bottom layer and the finest gravel is to be at the top.
iv) Under Drainage System

 The gravel support is laid on the top of an under-drainage system. It consists of a common
central drain and a lateral drain.
 The lateral drains are porous drains or open jointed pipe drains placed 3 to 5 m apart on the
bottom floor and sloping towards a main covered central drain.
 The lateral drains collect the filtered water and then the water will be discharged into the
main drain and which leads the water to the filtered well.
 Sometimes, instead of placing it in the centre, the main drain is placed along one side of the
tank and lateral slopes towards it.

v) Inlet and Outlet Arrangement

 An inlet chamber is constructed for admitting the effluent from the plain sedimentation tank
without disturbing the sand layers of the filter and to distribute it uniformly over the filter
bed.
 A filtered water well is also constructed on the outlet side inorder to collect the filtered
water coming out from the main under-drains.

Operation and Cleaning of Slow Sand Filter

 The water from the plain sedimentation tank is allowed to enter into the inlet chamber and
get distributed uniformly over the filter bed.
 The water percolates through the filter bed or and gets purified during the process of
filtration. Then water enters the lateral drains through the gravel layer as filtered water.
 From the lateral drains water gets discharged into the central main drain and from the
main drain it gets collected in the filtered water well and it can be taken to the storage
tank.
 The loss of head or filter head is generally limited to 0.7 to 1.2m.
Cleaning of Slow sand Filter

 The cleaning of slow sand filter is done by scrapping and removing the top sand layer of
about 1.5 to 3 m.
 Then the top surface is finally raked, roughened, cleaned and washed with good water. The
amount of water required is generally small in the order of0.2 to 0.6% of the total water
filtered. Cleaning is repeated until the sand depth reaches to 40 cm. Then more sand is
added.
 A lot of manual labour is required in cleaning such filters but very small quantity of wash
water is required.
 After cleaning, the filter si again used and raw water is admitted into it, but the effluents
obtained in the beginning will not be pure and are not used for about 24 to 36 hour until
formation of a film around the sand grains ahs takes place.
 Since the filtering action of the slow sand filters depends largely upon the formation of this
film, the effluents obtained in the beginning when such a film is absent, shall not be pure.
 The intervals between the successive two cleaning is normally one to three months and is
depending on the nature of impurities present in water and size of the filtering sand.

Rate of Filtration of Slow Sand filter

The rate of filtration obtained from the slow sand filter ranges 100 to 200 litres/hour/m2 of filter
area.

Efficiency and Performance of Slow Sand Filter

 Slow sand filters are highly efficient in removing bacteria and other suspended solids from
raw water and the extent of bacterial removal is up to 98%.
 These filters also remove the odour and tastes, particularly those caused by the presence of
organic impurities such as algae and plankton.
 However, these filters are less efficient in removing colour of raw water.
 These filters can remove turbidities only 50 mg/l and therefore, they are not suitable for
water having turbidities greater than 50 mg/l

Uses of Slow Sand Filter

 Suitable only for smaller plants and for purifying water with low colour, low turbidity and
low bacterial contents.
 More area of land is required.
 Preferred only for smaller village supplies and for individual industrial applications.
 RAPID SAND GRAVITY FILTER
The slow sand filters can yield at a very slow rate and requires huge quantities of filtering materials
and such filters requires larger space which may prove to be very costly. Therefore, to increase the
rate of filtration we are using rapid sand filters or mechanical sand filters.

Construction of Rapid Gravity Filters

The various types of the rapid gravity filters are discussed below;

i) Enclosure Tank:

 It consists of an open water tight rectangular tank made of masonry or concrete. The depth
of the tank may vary from 2.5 to 3.5 m. in order to achieve uniform distribution of water,
the area of the filter units should not be kept larger and is generally limited to about 10 to
80 m2 for each unit.
 There should be at least two filter units in any plant and for a plant of more than 9 million
litres per day capacity, no single unit should have a capacity greater than one-fourth of the
capacity of the plant.

ii) Filter Media:

 The filtering media consists of sand layers of about 60 to 90 cm in depth, and placed over
a gravel support. The effective size (D10) of the sand varies from 0.35 to 0.55 mm and the
uniformity coefficient ranges between 1.3 to 1.7.
  The sand must be laid in layers. The finer variety should be used towards the top and
coarser variety towards the bottom.

iii) Base Material:

 The base material is gravel and it supports the sand. The gravel bed in addition to giving the
support, it also distributes the wash water. It consists of 60 to 90 cm thick gravels of
different sizes placed in layers. Generally, five to six layers, each of 10 to 15 cm in depth
are used. The coarsest gravel used in the bottom most layer and the finest gravel is used in
the top most layer.
 The size of the gravel in the bottom most layer is thus generally kept between 20 to 40 mm,
in the intermediate layers between 12 to 20 mm and 6 to 12 mm and in the top most layer
between is between 3 to 6 mm.

iv) Under Drainage System:

In slow sand filter under drainage system is provided only to receive and collect the filtered water.
Whereas, in rapid gravity filters, the under drainage systems serves two purposes, such as (i) to
receive and collect the filtered water and (ii) to allow the backwashing water for cleaning the filter.

Under drainage should be capable of passing the wash water upward at a rate of about 300 – 900
litres/minute/m2 of filter area.

Lateral drains receive the water from filter bed and it discharges into a central manifold.

v) Other Appurtenances

It includes wash water troughs, air compressors and rate controller.

The dirty water which comes out of the filter after cleaning it is collected in wash water troughs or
gutters and carried to the main gutter.

They should be provided in such a depth that it is higher the sand top surface otherwise sand may
be washed out of the filter and the troughs are provided of about 1.5 to 2.0 m apart.

During backwashing the filter, the sand grains are agitated by compressed air supply for 4 minutes
of about 600 to 800 l/minute/m2 of filter area.

Working and Cleaning of Rapid Gravity Filter

The working of a rapid gravity filter includes various valves;

Valve 1 is opened during filtration, which leads to the water of the coagulation sedimentation basin
to enter the inlet chamber of the filter. This water gets filtered through the filter beds and the
filtered water can be taken out from the main drain by opening valve 4. Thus when filter is in
working condition, only these two valves shall be kept open and all other valves kept closed.

Backwashing:

 Excessive loss of head indicates the cleaning of the filter media necessary.
 During cleaning or backwash, the wash water sent back upward through the filter beds.
This forced upward movement of wash water and compressed air will agitate the sand
particles and thus removing impurities from it.
 Valve 1 and 4 are closed and valve 5 and 6 are opened. The wash water and compressed air
is forced upward and valve 5 is closed after supplying the required amount of air.
 The dirty water from the washings enters into the wash water troughs and is removed by
opening the valve 2, through the inlet chamber into the wash water gutter. This process is
continued for 3 to 5 minutes.
 After washing valve 2 and 6 is to be closed and valve 1 and 3 are opened. Then water enters
the valve 1 but the filtered water in the beginning should not be collected and washed for a
few minutes through valve 3 to the gutter. This is necessary because the remains of the
wash water must be removed from the voids of the filter and a surface mat must be allowed
to form on sand.
 Then valve 3 is to be closed and valve 4 is opened to get the filtered water again. The entire
backwashing and maintaining of filtered supplies takes about 15 minutes and the filter unit
must be shutdown during this time.
 About 2 to 5 % of the total water filtered is required for backwashing.
 The rapid gravity filters have to get clogged very frequently and have to be washed every
24 to 48 hours.

Loss of Filtration Head and Necessity of Cleaning

The water percolating through the filter moves down ward under the force of gravity. The motion
is opposed by the resistance offered by the sand grains and the impurities arrested in them.
Therefore, the percolating water loses some of head.
The loss of head can be easily computed by knowing the water level in the filter and in the outlet.
The difference between the two heads will give the loss of head called filter head.

By inserting piezometer, measure the pressure head.

Operational Troubles in Rapid Gravity Filter

There are three common operational troubles occur during the operation of rapid sand gravity
filter.

 Air Binding
 Formation of Mud Balls
 Cracking of Filters

i) Air Binding:

The fall of mercury level in the piezometer inserted in the outlet pipe below the centre line of the
pipe, indicates the presence and extent of negative pressure.

The negative pressure so developed, tends to release the air dissolved in water. It causes the
formation of bubbles, which stick to the sand grains, and thereby seriously affecting the working of
the filter. This phenomena is called as “air binding”, as the air binds the filter and stops its
functioning, thereby reducing the rate of filtration considerably. The escape of air into the filter
media to form bubbles, leading to air bubbles

A remedial measure to avoid air binding is to backwash the filter media frequently.

ii) Formation of Mud Balls:

The mud from the impurities of the water accumulates as a dense mat on the water surface. During
inadequate washing of the filter, this mud may sink down into the gravel bed, thus interfering with
the upward movement of wash water during cleaning.

The high velocities created around the edges of these balls also displace the gravel and thereby
forming mounds. Thus, when once the mud ball formation starts they go on increasing in number,
until the entire space in the filter box gets filled up with them.

Remedial measures adopted to control the mud ball formation are following;

 Mud balls may be broken down with some mechanical rakes and the broken mud particles
are washed off.
 Mud balls can also broken by water using a 10 mm dia pipe having a pointed out closed end
to provide water under pressure.
 Compressed air sour during backwashing for about 4 minutes supported with manual
surface raking may help in effective removal of mud balls.
 By caustic soda treatment of filter bed.
 When the filter gets badly clogged and damaged, then it may have to be totally replaced.
ii) Cracking of filters

 The fine sand contained in the top layers of the filter bed, shrinks and causes development
of shrinkage cracks in the sand bed.
 These cracks are more prominent near the wall junctions.
 With the use of filter, the loss of head and the pressure on the sand bed goes on increasing
which further goes on increasing these cracks.
 The floc, mud and other impurities arrested in the filter, penetrate deep into the filter
through these cracks, and thus impairing both the washing of the filter and the efficiency
of the filtration.

Rate of Filtration

The rate of filtration obtained from the rapid gravity filter is very high and is generally in the order
of 3000 to 6000 l/hr/m2 of filter area

This high rate of filtration leads to considerable savings of space as well as filter materials.

Efficiency and Performance of Rapid Gravity Filters

 Less efficient in removing bacteria and turbidities compared to the slow sand filter
 They can remove about 80 – 90% of the bacterial load present in water. The remaining
bacteria rae removed in disinfection units.
 They can remove turbidities to about 35 – 40 mg/l.
 But since the water entering these filters is given pretreatments in coagulation
sedimentation tanks, they are comparatively less turbid. Such turbidities can be easily
removed by these filters and brought to permissible limits.

Uses of rapid Gravity Filters

 Most economical method

 Used for treating public supplies, especially for large towns and cities.

Comparison between Slow Sand Filter and rapid Sand Gravity Filter:
Sl. Item Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter
No.
1 Pre- Water from plain Coagulation, flocculation and
treatment sedimentation or raw water sedimentation is a must.
required and should not coagulated
water
2 Filter media Grain size (D10) = 0.2 to 0.4 Grain size (D10) = 0.35 to 0.55 mm,
mm, depth of sand bed = 90 to depth of sand bed = 60 to 90 cm
110 cm
3 Base Gravel, 30 to 75 cm depth, Gravel, 60 to 90 cm depth and 3 to
material size of gravel is 3 to 65 mm 40 mm size.
4 Under Laid in order to receive Laid in order to receive filtered
drainage filtered water water and also to pass water for
system backwashing at a very high rate.
5 Size of each Large, plan area – 100 to 2000 Small, plan area – 10 to 80 m2.
unit m2 .
6 Rate of Small, 100 to 200 l/hr/m2 of Large, 3000 to 6000 l/hr/m2 of filter
filtration filter area area
7 Economy High initial cost of both land Low initial cost, but higher cost of
and materials, but low cost of operation and maintenance. Over
operation and maintenance all, it is cheaper and economical
8 Efficiency Very efficient in removing Less efficient in removing bacteria
bacteria (98 to 99%) but less (80 to 90 %) but very efficient in
efficient in removing colour removing colour.
9 Flexibility Not flexible for meeting Quite flexible for meeting
variation in demand reasonable variations in demand
10 Suitability Adopted for treating smaller They are widely and almost
and village supplies or for universally adopted for treating
adaptability individual industrial supplies public supplies.
11 Post Almost pure water is obtained Disinfection is must
treatment
12 Skilled Not required Essential
supervision
13 Loss of filter Approximately 10 cm Approximately 0.3 m
head
14 Method of Scrapping and removing the Agitating the sand grains and
cleaning top 1.5 to 3 cm layer, labours backwashing with or without
required compressed air, it is a short and
easy method
Pressure Filter
Pressure filters are just like rapid sand gravity filters placed in closed vessels and trough which
water to be treated is passed under pressure. Since water is passed through such filters at a pressure
greater than the atmospheric pressure, it is necessary that these filters are located in air tight
vessels. The raw water is pumped into the vessels by means of pumps. The pressure so developed
may normally vary between 30 to 70 meter head of water.

Construction of Pressure Filter:

The filter vessel may be installed either in a horizontal or in a vertical position, depending upon
which they may be classified as horizontal pressure filter or vertical pressure filter. Steel cylinders
are used as pressure vessel and may be riveted and or welded. The diameter generally varies
between 1.5 m to 3 m and their lengths or heights may vary from 3.5 to 8 m. inspection windows
are provided at the top for inspection purposes.

Working and Operation of Pressure Filter

 A pressure filter is operated like an ordinary rapid gravity filter except that the raw
coagulated water is neither flocculated nor settled before it enters the filter. The
flocculation takes place inside the pressure itself.
 Under normal working conditions, the coagulated water under pressure enters the filter
vessel through the inlet valve 1, and filtered water comes out of the outlet valve 2. Hence,
under this condition, only these two valves are kept open and all other valves are kept
closed
 The cleaning of the filter may be carried out by backwashing as done in a normal rapid
gravity filter.
 For cleaning the inlet and outlet valves 1 and 2 are closed and the wash water valve 3 and
wash water gutter valve 4 are opened. After the completion of cleaning, this valve may be
 closed, and raw supplies restored. However the filtered supplies should not be collected for
a little time and wasted through valve 4, as is done in a rapid gravity filter.
 The filters are cleaned when the loss of head due to clogging, exceeds a certain fixed value.
Pressure filters require slightly more frequent cleaning as compared to that required by
rapid gravity filters.

Rate of Filtration of Pressure Filter

The pressure filter can yield filtered water at rates much higher i.e., 2 to 5 times the rapid gravity
filters. Their rate of filtration ranges between 6000 to 15000 litres/hour/m2 of filter area. The lower
rates are used for domestic supplies, and higher rates for circulating swimming pool supplies.

Efficiency and Suitability of Pressure Filter

The pressure filters are less efficient than the rapid gravity filters, in removing bacteria and
turbidities. The quality of their effluent is poorer and they are generally not used for public
supplies. But since a pressure filter provides a compact and an easy handling machine, they may be
preferred for treating smaller quantities of comparatively clearer water. Hence they may be
installed for colonies of few houses, individual industries, private estates, swimming pools and
railways stations etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Pressure Filter over Rapid Gravity Filters

Advantages:

 A pressure filter is a compact machine can be handled easily.

 Requires lesser space and lesser filtering materials for treating the same quantity of water
by rapid filter.
 Sedimentation and coagulation tanks are avoided.
 Normally more flexible, as the pumping pressure changes, the filtration rates can be
changed.
 For larger quantity of water to be treated it is economical loss, but for smaller and
cleaner water is economically good.

Disadvantages:

 Although, the rate of filtration is high but filter unit is smaller, therefore the overall
capacity of the plant is small.
 Less efficient in removing bacteria and turbidities.
 Quality of the filtered water is less
 Costlier for treating municipal supply of water.
 Since the process of filtration as well as that of the backwashing, takes place in a closed
vessel, therefore proper inspection and quality control is not possible.
 Inspection, cleaning and maintenance of sand, gravel and under drainage system is difficult.