Dual Nature of Light, Electron Emission and Work Function

Part -01

Dual Nature of Light

Experimental phenomena of light reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction are explained only on
the basis of wave theory of light. These phenomena verify the wave nature of light.
Experimental phenomena of light photoelectric effect and Compton effect, pair production and pair
annihilation can be explained only on the basis of the particle nature of light. These phenomena verify
the particle nature of light. it is inferred that light does not have any definite nature, rather its nature
depends on its experimental phenomenon. This is known as the dual nature of light. The wave nature
and particle nature both can not be possible simultaneously.

Electron Emission
➢ Emission of electron from a metal surface, when energy is incident upon the surface.
➢ Minimum energy required to bring out the electron from metal surface is called work function
(ϕ0).
➢ It depends on nature of material and nature of surface.

Types of Electron Emission

1. Thermionic emission
2. Field emission
H =
0
.

3. Photoelectric emission

Thermionic emission : The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the metal surface when it is
heated is called thermionic emission.
Field emission : In this process strong electric field ( 108 V/m) is applied to a metal, and the electrons
are emitted from the surface.
V/m(E)

+ + +
+ + +

108

LE -qV ged -

E4 10

104
6
-
I
ee e e

102 - - - -

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Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-01

Photoelectric emission : When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface, electrons are
emitted from the metal surface . This phenomenon is called photo electric emission.

Different Experiments
Hertz Experiment
Hertz observed that when ultraviolet rays are incident on a negative plate of electric discharge tube
then conduction takes place easily in the tube.
ultraviolet rays

cathode anode

evacuated quartz tube

– + A

Hallwach Experiment
Hallwach observed that if negatively charged Zn plate of electroscope is illuminated by ultra violet
light, its negative charge decreases and becomes neutral and after some time, it gains positive charge.
It indicates that under the action of ultra violet light, some negative charged particles are emitted
from the metal.
Lenard Experiment
He told that when ultraviolet rays are incident on cathode, electrons are ejected, these electrons are
attracted by anode and due to complete path of photo electrons, photo current flows. When ultra
violet rays are incident on anode, electrons are ejected but current does not flow.

Work Function ()

It is the minimum energy required by an electron to escape from metal surface.
Note : Depends on the nature of metal and its surface.
Minimum : Cs = 2.14 eV
Maximum : Pt = 5.65 eV
1eV = 1.6 ×10–19 J

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 Einstein's Quantum theory of Light

Part -02

Quantum Theory
➢ Light behaves as Quanta, when it interacts with the matter.
These energy quanta are called photons, having definite Energy and Momentum.
➢ Photons always travel with speed of light in vacuum.
c = 3 × 108 m/s
➢ Photons are electrically neutral and are not affected by electric and magnetic fields.

Energy of photon
Energy radiated from a source propagates (microscopically) in the form of small packets and these
are known as photons. according to Planck the energy of a photon is directly proportional to the
frequency of the radiation.
En  E = h E = mc2 = f =
mc
=
hc hc 12400
E= ( c = )  E = = eV – Å [ hc = 12400 (Å – eV)]
  
Here E = energy of photon, c = speed of light, h = Planck's constant (h = 6.62 × 10–34 J-s),
e = charge of electron, n = frequency of photon, l = wavelength of photon

Linear momentum of photon

E h h
Linear momentum of photon p = = =
c c 

Effective mass of photon

E hc h 1
Effective mass of photon m = = = i.e. effective mass m 
c2 c2 c 
So mass of violet light photon is greater than the mass of red light photon. ( R > V)
Rest mass of a photon is always zero.

Intensity of light
E P
I= = …(i) P = I A
.

At A
joule watt
SI Unit : 2 or
m −s m2
Here P = power of source, A = Area, t = time taken
E = energy incident in t time = Nhn, N = number of photon incident in t time

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Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-02

N(h ) n(h)  N 
Intensity  = = ...(ii)  n= = no. of photon per sec.
At A  t 
P n(h) &
from equation (i) and (ii), = P
A A
P P
n= =  n = (5 × 1024 J–1 m–1) P × 
h hc

Illustration 1.
Power of a radiator is 100 watt and its  is 400 nm. Calculate No. of photon emitted in 10 hrs.
Solution.
n = 5 × 1024 × 100 × 4 × 10–7 = 2 × 1020
N = n × t = 2 × 1020 × 10 × 3600 = 7.2 × 1024

Illustration 2.
A source S1 is producing 1015 photon/s of wavelength 5000 Å. Another source S2 is producing
1.02 × 1015 photon/s of wavelength 5100 Å. Calculate ratio of power of S2 to power of S1.
Solution.
P nhc
n = or P =
hc 
P2 n2  1
=  =
P1 2 n1 1

Illustration 3.
Intensity of U.V. radiations is 10 Watt/m2 and its average wavelength is 6000 Å. It is incident on a
surface. Calculate number of photon per 2 sec. per 2 m2.

Photon
Solution.
P
n= = (5 × 1024 J–1m–1) A [P = IA]
hc
= (5 × 1024) × 10× 2× 6000 × 10–10 = 6 × 1019

Photo/n =
N = n × t = 6 × 1019 × 2
= 1.2 × 1020

Illustration 4.
In an photo-electric experiment frequency of incident light is doubled and its intensity is trippled. How
much time the photon current is obtained?
Solution.
 = nh
3
n = times
2
in
3
So i = times
2

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Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-02

Illustration 5. e Ep =I
The energy flux of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is 1.388 × 10 3 Wm–2. How many photons
(nearly) per square meter are incident on the earth per second? Assume that the photons in the
sunlight have an average wavelength of 1550 nm.
=> d +(nm >
= m)
E
Solution.
IA IA
n= =
E hc

Illustration 6.
Calculate the energy of photon having  = 4000 Å in eV and in J.
Solution.
12400
E= eV = 3.1eV
4000
E = 3.1 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 4.96 × 10–19 J

Illustration 7.
The power of a bulb is 60 milliwatt and the wavelength of light is 6000 Å. Calculate the number of
photons/second emitted by the bulb?
Solution.
n
==
Energy released per second
nhc P 60  10−3  6000  10−10
nh = power or = P or n = = photon/sec = 1.8 × 1017 photon/sec
 hc 6.62 10−34  3 108

Illustration 8.
The energy flux of sunlight reaching on the Earth's surface is 1.388 × 103 W/m2 . How many photons
(nearly) per square metre are incident on the Earth per second? Assume that the photons in the
sunlight have an average length of 550 nm.
Solution.
Power emitted P
Intensity  = = = 1.388 × 103 W/m2
Area A
hc 6.63 10–34  3 108
Also Energy of a photon E = = = 3.616 × 10–19 J
 550  10−9
P/ A I 1.388  103
Let n be the total number of photon/area then n = = = = 3.83 × 1021 photon/m2s
E E 3.616  10−19

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 Radiation Force and Pressure
Part -03

Radiation force and Radiation pressure

(i) When radiations are falling normally on a perfectly reflecting surface -
Let 'N' photons are falling in time t,
Nh
momentum before striking the surface (p1 ) =

Nh
momentum after striking the surface (p2 ) =

−2Nh
change in momentum of photons = p2 − p1 =

2Nh
momentum transferred to the surface = p =

p 2Nh  2h  P
radiation force on the surface F = = =n  but n =
t t  hc
2h P P 2P F 2P 2I  P
 F=
M
  = and Radiation pressure = = =
  hc c A cA c 

I= 
A
incident photon

reflected photon
(ii) When radiations are falling normally on a perfectly absorbing surface –
Nh
p1 − p2  − 0 Nh h  P 
Radiation force F = = = F = n  n= 
t t t   hc 
P F P I
F = and Pressure = = =
c A Ac c
incident photon

no reflected
photon p2 = 0

 Digital [1]

 -1

= (1 9)
+

A 8

Foo
F =

EH9/loso PE
O
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-03

Illustration 1.
A beam of electromagnetic wave of power 10 watt is incident normally on a surface, which absorb
40% power and remaining power is reflected. Calculate force exerted on a surface.
Solution. 9 =
0 6
-

Pi + Pr 10 + 6 16
F= = = = 5.33 10−8 N
c 310 3108
8

Illustration 2.
A 100 W sodium lamp radiates energy uniformly in all directions. The lamp is located at the centre of
a large sphere that absorbs all the sodium light, which is incident on it. The wavelength of the sodium
light is 589 nm.
(a) What is the energy per photon associated with the sodium light?
(b) At what rate are the photons delivered to the sphere? [NCERT]
Solution.
hc
(a) E =

P P
(b) n = =
hc E

Illustration 3.
Estimating the following two numbers should be interesting. The first number tell why radio engineers
do not need to worry much about photons! The second number tells you why our eye can never 'count
photons' even in barely detectable light.
(a) The number of photons emitted per second by a 10 kW power transmitter emitting radio waves of
wavelength 500 m.
(b) The number of photons entering the pupil of eye per second corresponding to the minimum
intensity of white light that we humans can perceive (~10–10 Wm–2). Take the area of the pupil to
be about 0.4 cm2 and the average frequency of white light to be about 6 × 1014 Hz.
Solution.
P P
(a) n = =
E hc
n = 2.51 × 1031
and energy of each photon
P 104
E= = = 3.98  10−28 J
n 2.51  1031
Because the number of photons emitted by the transmitter is very very large and the energy of
each photon is very small, thus radio engineers make no error, when they overlook the existence
of the photon (due to its very small energy) and instead consider the radio wave as continuous
(due to large no. of photons)

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Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-03

IA
(b) n = 104 photon per second
hc
th
1
Thus in one second 10, 000 photons enter the eye. Since the persistence of vision is   of a
 16 
second, these photons cannot be counted by the eye.

Illustration 4.
How many photons of wavelength  = 6600 nm must strike a totally reflecting screen per second at
normal incidence so as to exert a force of 1N ?
Solution.
h h
Momentum of the incident photon p = , Momentum after reflection = –
 
2h
Change in momentum = p =

If n is the number of photons falling per second on the screen then force
p 2nh F 1  6600  10−9
F= = n = = = 5 1027 photons s–1
t  2h 2 6.6  10−34

 Digital [3]

 Photoelectric Effect

Part -04

Photoelectric Effect
It is a phenomenon of ejecting electrons by falling light of suitable frequency or suitable wavelength
on a metal. Ejected electron are called photoelectrons and current flowing due to the photoelectrons
is called photoelectric current. This effect was discovered by Hertz.
Laws of photo electric effect were given by Lenard. It was explained by Einstein using Quantum theory
of light.
photon energy E = h electrons ejected
from the surface

e–
e–
e –
e –
e
– e– e–

e– e–
metal

The work function (Φ) represents the energy needed to remove the least tightly bound electrons from
the surface. It depends only on nature of the metal surface and independent of any other factors.
➢ Condition for PEE
Energy of photon ≥ Φ
➢ Condition E < Φ
No PEE
Different Experiments
Hertz Experiment
Hertz observed that when ultraviolet rays are incident on a negative plate of electric discharge tube
then conduction takes place easily in the tube.
Hallwach Experiment
Hallwach observed that if negatively charged Zn plate of electroscope is illuminated by ultra violet
light, its negative charge decreases and becomes neutral and after some time, it gains positive charge.
It indicates that under the action of ultra violet light, some negative charged particles are emitted
from the metal.
Lenard Experiment
He told that when ultraviolet rays are incident on cathode, electrons are ejected, these electrons are
attracted by anode and due to complete path of photo electrons, photo current flows. When ultra
violet rays are incident on anode, electrons are ejected but current does not flow.

 Digital [1]

 Experimental Setup of Photoelectric Effect by Lenard

Part -05

Experimental study of photoelectric Effect

When light of frequency  and intensity  falls on the cathode, electrons are emitted from it. The
electrons are collected by the anode and a current flows in the circuit. This current is called
photoelectric current. This experiment is used to study the variation of photoelectric current with
different factors like intensity, frequency and the potential difference between the anode and cathode.
 → intensity
0
·tod
.  → frequency
=
hr .

e
-e 1 2
e

C A
&A e
OuKE Max
:
it e

↑ V
↓
C
VA
↓
$3 %
Be C
↓
Retarding (1)
e Rheostat
Y4 = 14 e Potential
Meet &
cell, few volts
Photoelectron :
The electron emitted in photoelectric effect is called photoelectron.
Photoelectric current :
If current passes through the circuit in photoelectric effect then the current is called photoelectric
current.
Work function :
The minimum energy required to make an electron free from the metal is called work function. It is
constant for a metal and denoted by  or W. It is the minimum for Cesium. It is relatively less for alkali
metals.
Saturation current :
Est)
When all the photo electrons emitted by cathode reach the anode then current flowing in the circuit
at that instant is known as saturated current, this is the maximum value of photoelectric current.
Stopping potential :
Minimum magnitude of negative potential of anode with respect to cathode for which current is zero
is called stopping potential. This is also known as cutoff voltage. This voltage is independent of
intensity.
Retarding potential : Negative potential of anode with respect to cathode which is less than stopping
potential is called retarding potential.

 Digital [1]

 Observations of Lenard's Experiment of Photoelectric Effect

Part -06

The effect of potential difference between A and C

Light of fixed frequency () and intensity (I) is incident on photo emissive plate C, keeping A positive
w.r.t. C. If positive potential of A gradually increased, it is found that first photo current increases then
becomes maximum called saturation current.
Now we apply negative potential to plate A w.r.t. C and on increasing it gradually, current decreases
and becomes zero at acertain negative potential.
ultraviolet rays

– photo electrons
+

C(cathode) A(anode)

G
Vac
Magnitude of the minimum negative potential at which ip becomes zero, called stopping
potential (V0).

ip
Is ------

Ki
is(Saturation current)

Toe –V0 Vac

At stopping potential most energetic electrons are stopped. (Vo)
It means stopping potential measures maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons. i.e. Kmax. = eV0
Stopping potential does not depend on the distance between emitter and collector.

Effect of intensity of light 18 Constr

> Do
When intensity of given source able to produce PEE, is increased, is increases but V0 remains
unchanged.
is X nexNph I We fixed)

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Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-06

Photocurrent

photoelectric current
3 > 2 > 1
- 3
2
-
1
Stopping potential

Retarding –V0 0 Collector plate Intensity of light

potential potential

Effect of frequency ll- custo

When frequency of radiations is increased, V0 increases but is is almost unchanged. It is also observed
that below a certain frequency photoelectrons don't come out. The minimum frequency which can
eject the photo electrons is called cut off or threshold frequency. Similarly corresponding maximum
wavelength is called threshold wavelength. 0 = 10 o, U .
- Threshold freq

E =
U- # + knxt
Stopping potential (V0)

Photoelectric --------

current
3 > 2 > 1
3 Saturation current
2 1

–V03 –V02 –V01 0 Collector plate 0 frequency()

Retarding potential potential

Time lag
There is no time lag between the incidence of radiations and emission of electrons. The photoelectric
emission is an instantaneous process without any apparent time lag (~ 10–9 s or less), even when the
incident radiation is made exceedingly dim.
(Disobey's wave nature)

 Digital [2]

 Einstein's Photoelectric Equation

Part -07

Explanation by Einstein
Radiations absorbed by the surface are in the form of quanta (photon). Energy of each photon
depends on frequency. One photon can interact with one electron at a time. In the interaction between
photon and electron incident photon transfers its whole energy to the electron.

If energy is sufficient then electron comes out without any time delay. It means phot electric effect is
an instantaneous process.

If intensity of the given source is increased then number of photon increases. So that, more number
of electrons are emitted and greater saturation current is obtained. It means saturation current
depends upon intensity of the given source is  

At a time, only one photon can interact with one electron.

Energy of photon used by the electron is
h = Kinetic energy of electron + Energy required to make electron free from the metal surface (0)
+ Energy lost in collision before emission (Q)
If Q = 0, means there is no heat loss, then kinetic energy of electron is maximum.
Now h = ([Link]) + 0 It is known as Einstein's equation of P.E.E.
([Link]) = h – 0 or eV0 = h – 0 or eV0 = h – h0
Here 0 is threshold frequency for that V0 = 0
It means maximum K.E. and stopping potential (V0) depends on frequency. It is independent of
intensity of the given source.

Kinetic energy cannot be negative so that, h > 0

 hc 12400 
h > h0 Here 0 = h0 = , 0 = eV − A 
 0 0 
 > 0 It means if frequency is less than '0', electron does not come out.
Graph between (K.E.)max. and frequency
(K)max. = h – 0 [ Y = mx – c]
> slope = m = tan = h (same for all metals)
(0)B > (0)A >
-
y intercept

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Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-07

KEnX =

nu-o (K)max
metal A metal B

Ke =
0 hV =
&
 ⑨

(0)A (0)B 
(0)A frequency
(0)B ⑧

Graph between stopping potential (V0) and frequency ()

eV0 = h – 0
h  
V0 =    −  0 
e e
h
slope = m = tan = (same for all metals)
e
metal A metal B
V0

 
(0)A (0)B 
frequency

Illustration 1.
The threshold wavelength of a metal is 400 nm. Photo electrons have kinetic energy maximum 1.5 eV.
Find the wavelength of incident photon.
Solution:
12400eVÅ 12400eVÅ
0 = 400 nm = 4000 Å [Link]. = −
 0
12400 eVÅ 12400 eV 12400eVÅ
1.5 eV = −  1.5 eV = − 3.1 eV
 4000 
12400 eVÅ 12400Å
(1.5 + 3.1) eV =  =   = 2696 Å
 4.6

Illustration 2.
The work function of a metal is 2.3 eV and the wavelength of incident photon is 4.8 × 10–7m. Find
maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons.

 Digital [2]

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-07

Solution.
 = 2.3 eV and  = 4.8 × 10–7 m = 4800 Å
hc (6.62 10−34 Js)(3 108 ms−1 ) 12400 eVÅ
[Link]. = −= − = −
  
 12400 
[Link]. =  − 2.3 eV  0.28 eV
 4800 

Illustration 3.
E hr
=
I
Light quanta with an energy 4.9 eV eject photoelectrons from metal with work function 4.5 eV. Find
the maximum impulse transmitted to the surface of the metal when each electron flies out.
Solution.
According to Einstein's photoelectric equation
1
Kmax = mv2max = h – 0 = 4.9 – 4.5 = 0.4 eV
2
E
change of momentum = impulse  impulse = mv –  −  = mv + E/c
 c

M (phaton)
E
T
A e–
L Lelection)
(p2 – p1)
E 4.9  1.6  10−19
Maximum impulse = 2mKmax + = 2 0.4  1.6  10−19  9.1  10−31 + =3.43×10–25 kg m/s
c 3 108

Illustration 4.
d
The stopping potential for the photoelectrons emitted from a metal surface of work function 1.7 eV

Vs is 10.4V. Find the wavelength of the radiation used. Also identify the energy levels in hydrogen atom
=

which will emit this wavelength. evs =

kmx ,
hv =

0 + kmx
Solution.
Energy of radiation h = KEmax + 0 = eV0 + 0 = 10.4 eV + 1.7 eV = 12.1 eV
hc 12400
Wavelength corresponding to this energy  = = eV−Å = 1024 Å
E 12.1eV
1 1
As E = 13.6  2 − 2  = 12.1 eV
1 3 
so this radiation will be emitted by transition
n=3→n=1

 Digital [3]

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-07

Illustration 5. E =
nc/d =
hu d = hV .

A light of wavelength 1240 Å incident on a metal having threshold frequency 4.8 × 1014 Hz. What is
maximum kinetic energy of photo electron ? If light has intensity 100 W/cm2 then calculate number
of incident photons per m2 per second.
Solution.
Maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons
hc hc
Kmax = –= – h0
 
6.62 10−34  3 108 6.62 10−34  4.8  1014
Kmax = eV − eV
1240  10−10  1.6  10−19 1.6  10−19
Kmax = (10 – 2) eV = 8 eV = 12.8 × 10–19 J
P I
Number of photons per unit area per unit time n = =
hcA hc
100  1240  10−10
n= m–2s–1 = 62.43 × 1022 m–2 s–1
10−4  6.62 10−34  3 108

 Digital [4]

 Quantum Efficiency and Photocell

Part -08

Quantum Efficiency and Photocell

Quantum efficiency
number of electrons emitted per second n
Quantum efficiency = = e
total number of photons incident per second nph
ne
x= ...(i)
nph
x
If quantum efficiency is x% then ne = nph [from equation (i)] [Here nph = (5 × 1024 J–1 m–1) P]
100
Photoelectric current
charge Q
Photoelectric current Ie = = =ne e = 1.6 × 10–19 ne
time t
Photo Cell
A photo cell is a practical application of the phenomenon of photo electric effect, It converts light
energy into electrical energy.
Construction
A photo cell consists of an evacuated sealed glass tube containing anode and a concave cathode of
suitable emitting material such as Cesium (Cs).
Working
When light of frequency greater than the threshold frequency of cathode material falls on the cathode,
emitted photoelectrons are collected by the anode and an electric current starts flowing in the external
circuit. The current increases with the increase in the intensity of light. The current would stop, if the
light does not fall on the cathode.

mA
+ anode +
V
e– e– –
light
e– e– glass tube
e–
cathode
–

Application
(i) In television camera.
(ii) In automatic door
(iii) Burglar's alarm
(iv) Automatic switching of street light and traffic signals.

 Digital [1]

 Failure of Wave Theory in Explanation of Photoelectric Effect

Part -09

Failure of Wave Theory in Explanation of Photoelectric Effect

Failure of Wave Theory of Light
(i) According to wave theory when light incident on a surface, energy is distributed continuously over
the surface. So that electron must take a time interval to accumulate sufficient energy to come out.
But in experiment there is no time lag.
(ii) When intensity is increased, more energetic electrons should be emitted. So that stopping potential
should be intensity dependent. But it is not observed.
(iii) According to wave theory, if intensity is sufficient then, at each frequency, electron emission is
possible. It means there should not be existence of threshold frequency.

Qu

 Digital [1]

 Matter Wave - de Broglie Hypothesis

Part -10

Matter Wave - de Broglie Hypothesis

Light has a dual nature

1. Sometimes it behaves like a particle (called a photon), which explains how light travels in straight
lines and interacts with matter. For example, in experiments of PEE, Compton effect, Raman effect
light behaves as particle.
2. Sometimes it behaves like a wave, which explains how light show interference, diffraction and
polarisation.

De-Broglie Hypothesis
Moving particles of matter should display wave like properties under suitable conditions. Because
nature loves symmetry and the two basic physical entities- matter and energy, must have symmetrical
character. If radiation shows dual aspects, so matter should also show dual nature (particle as well as
wave).

Introduction of matter waves

1. Waves associated with a moving particles are matter waves. (not with stationary particles).
2. Every wave has a wave function, for example EM wave has electric and magnetic field as a functions
of time. Mechanical wave has medium particle's displacement as a function of time. But matter
waves can not be expressed by such functions therefore it is stated that, "matter waves are neither
EM waves nor mechanical waves."
3. Matter waves are probabilistic waves because these are based on concept of probability and can be
expressed by probability density functions.
4. Matter waves are also known as de-Broglie waves. Because their concept was given by physicist
Louis Victor de Broglie.
5. Macroscopic objects in our daily life do not show wave-like properties because their wavelength
are so small (beyond any measurement). But the wave character of microscopic particles (sub-
atomic particles) is significant and measurable.

Formula for de-Broglie wavelength

h h h
= = =
p mv 2mK
Where :
 = de-Broglie wavelength associated with the moving particles.

 Digital [1]

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-10

h = Planck's constant = 6.63 × 10–34 J-s = 4.132 × 10–15 eV-s

p = Linear momentum = mv
1 2 p2
K = Kinetic energy = mv =
2 2m
 p2 = 2mK  p = 2mK

 Digital [2]

 De Broglie Wavelength of Charged Particle

Part -11

de-Broglie wavelength for a charged particle

Consider a charged particle of mass 'm' and charge 'q' accelerated from rest through a potential V,
then its
(a) Kinetic energy K = qV
(b) Momentum p = 2mK = 2mqV

2qV 1 2K 
(c) Velocity v =  K = mv  v = 
m  2 m 
h
(d) de-Broglie wavelength  =
2mqV
Examples of different charged particles
1. Electron (–1e0):
me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg
qe = e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
12.27 150
e = Å volt = Å vllt
V V
2. Proton (1p1):
mp = 1.67 × 10–27 kg
qp = e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
0.2863
P = Å
V
3. Deutron (1H2 or d):
md = mp + mn  2mp
qd = qp + qn = e + 0 = e
0.2021
d = Å volt
V
4. Alpha particle ( or 2He4)
ma = 2mp + 2mn  4mp
q = 2qp + 2qn = 2e + 0 = 2e
0.1012
 = Å volt
V

 Digital [1]

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-11

Illustration 1.
With what potential an electron should be accelerated so that its de-Broglie wavelength becomes 10Å
Solution.
150
e = Å volt = 10Å
V
150
 V= volt = 1.5 volt
100

Illustration 2.
Find the ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths for a proton and an alpha particle, if both have same speed.
Solution.
h 1
 
mv m
p m 4mp
= = = 4:1
 mp mp

Illustration 3.
Find the ratio of de-Broglie wavelength for a proton and a deutron, if both have same kinetic energy.
Solution.
h 1
=  
2mK m
p md 2mp
= = 2 :1
d mp mp

Illustration 4.
Calculate the ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths for a proton and an alpha particle, accelerated with same
potentials from rest.
Solution.
h 1
= 
2mqV mq
p mq 4mp 2e
= =  = 2 2 :1
 mpqp mp e

Illustration 5.
Calculate K.E. of an electron having de-Broglie wavelength 1Å.
Solution.
150
e = Å volt = 1Å
V
 Vacc = 150 volt
 K.E. = q × Vacc. = e × 150 V = 150 eV

 Digital [2]

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-11

Illustration 6.
If de-Broglie wavelength of a moving electron is decreased from 1 Å to 0.5 Å, then calculate change
in its K.E. in eV.
Solution.
150
1 = Å volt = 1Å  V1 = 150volt
V1
 K1 = 150 eV
150
2 = Å volt = 0.5Å  V1 = 600volt
V
 K2 = 600 eV
 Change in K.E.
K = K2 – K1 = 600 – 150 = 450 eV

 Digital [3]

 De Broglie Wavelength associated with Uncharged Particles

Part 12

De-Broglie wavelength of neutral particles

1. Neutron (0n1):
h h h
n = = = Here K must be in joule (J)
Pn mn vn 2mnK
0.2863
n = Å eV Here K must be in eV
K
3
Special Note: For thermal neutrons, average kinetic energy is given by kT .
2
h h 25.6
 n = =  Å K (Temperature is in Kelvin)
3  3mn kT T
2mn  kT 
2 
f
2. Gas molecule: Total kinetic energy of any gas molecule is kT where = f = degree of freedom.
2
f
But total translatory kinetic energy of any gas molecule is kT . Because de-Broglie wavelength is
2
associated with translational motion only. Therefore, for any gas molecule
h h
= = (Here T is in kelvin scale)
3  3mkT
2m  kT 
2 

Illustration 1.
Compute the typical de-Broglie wavelength of an electron in a metal at 27°C and compare it with the
mean separation between two electrons in a metal, which is given to be about 2 × 10–10m.
Solution.
h 6.6  10−34
= = = 6.2 10−9 m
3mkT −31 −23
3(9.1  10 )(1.38  10 )(273 + 27)
As mean separation between two electrons
r = 2 × 10–10 m
r 2.10−10 m
 =  0.03
 6.2 10−9 m

 Digital [1]

 Davisson-Germer Experiment

Part -13

Davisson Germer Experiment

1. This experiment experimentally verifies the concept of matter waves.
2. In this experiment a sharp accelerated electron beam is diffracted by the nickel crystal.
3. Experimental set-up

– +
H.T.

Acc e beam
Nickel
F Crystal

focusing cylinder
L.T
(Low voltage supply) diffracted
e beam

Movable
detector
To galvanometer
4. Basic elements used in the experimental set-up:-
(i) Electron gun:- It provides a sharp beam of e–s of different K.E., which is given by KE = eVacc
Electron gun consists a tungsten filament F, coated with barium oxide. By thermionic emission,
electrons are emitted by filament and accelerated to a desired velocity by applying high
voltage power supply. They are made to pass through a cylinder with fine holes along its axis,
producing a fine collimated beam.
(ii) Ni crystal:- It is used to diffract/scatter electrons in all direction.
(iii) Detector:- It is used to measure intensity of scattered electron beam in a given direction.
The detector can be moved on a circular scale and is connected to a sensitive galvanometer
whose deflection is proportional to the intensity of the electron beam entering the collector.

Conclusion and results : Curve between the intensity (I) of diffracted electrons and diffracting
angle (f)

 Digital [1]

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-13

 v = 54 volt


 = 50°

Graph I versus  for different accelerating potential V

electrons of 54 eV
 = 50  = 50

Nickel crystal
V < 54V V = 54V V > 54V
In this experiment, on drawing different I– curve intensity maxima is obtained at an angle of
diffraction of 50° and accelerating potential 54 volt.
Calculations and result:- The appearance of the peak in a particular direction is due to the constructive
interference and it is called diffraction maxima. This indicates that moving electrons are behaving like
wave. Hence wavelength of these can be calculated by following two methods:
Considering moving e–s as particle Considering moving e–s as wave
Using de-Broglie formula Using Bragg's equation
12.27 12.27
e = = 2d sin = n
V 54
180 − 
e = 1.67 Å Where,  = = 65° & d = 0.91Å for Ni
2
n=1
and e = 1.65 Å
Both calculated and experimental wavelengths are equal hence verifies the concept of matter waves
(moving particles shows wave character).

Relation between  and  :  = 180° – 2 or  = 90° –
2
incident
D electron
beam
d diffracted
  electron
beam

scattering
plane
atomic
lattice

 Digital [2]

 Explanation of Bohr Quantisation condition

Part -14

Explanation of Bohr quantisation condition

According to De Broglie electron revolves round the nucleus in the form of stationary waves (i. e. wave
packet) in the similar fashion as stationary waves in a vibarting string. Electron revolves in those circular
orbits whose circumference is an integral multiple of de–Broglie wavelength associated with the
electron, 2r = n
2 I
&


s
. 6 Bohr orbit
th
3

4
.
5
h
= and 2r = n
mv
nh
 mvr =
2
This is the Bohr quantisation condition.

equivalent straightened orbit

General form
2rn = n
Where n = order of the orbit
rn = radius of the nth Bohr orbit
n2
rn = (0.529 Å) [Z = atomic number]
Z

Illustration 1.
Calculate de-Broglie wavelength of an e– revolving in first excited state in hydrogen atom.
Solution.
Given n = 2 (first excited state)
Z = 1 (for hydrogen)
(2)2
2r2 = 2   = r2 = (0.53Å)
(1)
 = 2.116 Å

 Digital [1]

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter – Part-14

Illustration 2.
In third orbit of hydrogen atom wavelength of revolving electron is . Calculate the circumference of
third Bohr orbit.
Solution.
2r3 = 3
Circumference of 3rd Bohr orbit = 3

 Digital [2]

 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Part -15

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Bohr's theory considers an electron as a material particle. Its position and momentum can be
determined with accuracy. But, when an electron is considered in the form of wave as suggested by
de-Broglie, it is not possible to ascertain simultaneously the exact position and velocity of the electron
more precisely at a given instant since the wave extends throghout a region of space.
Therefore, de-Broglie nicely incorporatated the wave particle duality with Heisenberg uncertainity
principle.
In 1927, Werner Heisenberg presented a principle known as Heisenberg uncertainity principle which
states that : "It is impossible to measure simultaneously the exact position and exact momentum of a
body as small as an electron."
The uncertainity in measurement of position, x, and the uncertainity in momentum p or mv, are
related by Heisenberg's relationship as : ( p = mv, p = mv)
h h
x.p  or E.t 
4 4
where h is Planck's constant.
(i) When x = 0, p = 
(ii) When p = 0, x = 
So, if the position is known quite accurately, i.e., x is very small, p becomes large and vice-versa.

 Digital [1]

 Dalton's Atomic Theory
Part - 01

Various models for structure of atom

Dalton's Theory
Every material is composed of minute particles known as atom. Atom is indivisible i.e. it cannot be
subdivided. It can neither be created nor be destroyed.
All atoms of same element are identical physically as well as chemically, whereas atoms of different
elements are different in properties.
The atoms of different elements are made up of hydrogen atoms. (The radius of the heaviest atom is
about 10 times that of hydrogen atom and its mass is about 250 times that of hydrogen).
The atom is stable and electrically neutral.

 Digital [1]

 Thomson's Atomic Model
Part - 02

Thomson's Atom Model

The atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the positive charge present on the atom (sphere)
is equal to the negative charge of electrons present in the sphere. Atom is a positively charged sphere
of radius 10–10 m in which electrons are embedded in between. The positive charge and the whole
mass of the atom is uniformly distributed throughout the sphere.
Electron

Positively
charged
matter

Shortcomings of Thomson's model

(i) The spectrum of atoms cannot be explained with the help of this model
(ii) Scattering of –particles cannot be explained with the help of this model

 Digital [1]

 Rutherford Atomic Model
Part - 03

Rutherford experiments on scattering of  – particles by thin gold foil

Ernst Rutherford, H. Geiger and E. Marsden Performed this experiment.
In this experiment a beam of a-Particles (Helium nucleus) of energy 5.5 MeV, emitted by a 214
83 Bi
radioactive source was directed at a thin metal foil made of gold. They studied the -particles
scattered at various angles.
The experimental arrangement is shown in figure. –particles are emitted by some radioactive material
(polonium), kept inside a thick lead box. A very fine beam of –particles passes through a small hole
in the lead screen. This well collimated beam is then allowed to fall on a thin gold foil. While passing
through the gold foil, –particles are scattered through different angles. A zinc sulphide screen was
placed out the other side of the gold foil. This screen was movable, so as to receive the –particles,
scattered from the gold foil at angles varying from 0 to 180°. When an –particle strikes the screen, it
produces a flash of light and it is observed by the microscope. It was found that :
vacuum ZnS
lead screen
lead box screen gold foil
107m
beam of θ
N() cosec4
-particle 
N()

2
most -pass
source of through
-particle

about 1 in 8000 is some are deviated 90 180


repelled back through large angle 

• Most of the  – particles went straight through the gold foil and produced flashes on the screen as if
there were nothing inside gold foil. Thus the atom is hollow.
• Few particles collided with the atoms of the foil which have scattered or deflected through
considerable large angles. Few particles even turned back towards source itself.
• The entire positive charge and almost whole mass of the atom is concentrated in small centre called
a nucleus.
• The electrons could not deflected the path of a  – particles i.e. electrons are very light.
• Electrons revolve round the nucleus in circular orbits. So, Rutherford 1911, proposed a new type of
model of the atom. According to this model, the positive charge of the atom, instead of being
uniformly distributed throughout a sphere of atomic dimension is concentrated in a very small volume
(Less than 10–13m is diameter) at it centre. This central core, now called nucleus, is surrounded by
clouds of electron makes.

 Digital [1]

Atoms Part-03

The entire atom electrically neutral. According to Rutherford scattering formula, the number of  –
particle scattered at an angle  by a target are given by
N0nt(2Ze2 )2 1
N =  4
16(40 ) r (mv 0 ) sin
2 2 2 2 

mub-mo
2

Where N0 = number of  -particles that strike the unit area of the scatter
n = Number of target atom per m3
t = Thickness of target
Ze = Charge on the target nucleus
2e = Charge on  – particle Ei Ef
=

r = Distance of the screen from target

v0 = Velocity of  – particles at nearer distance of approach the size of a nucleus or the distance
of nearer approach is given by.

r0

-particle
 nucleus
Ze
b target
nucleus

area = b2
Radius of Nudeus
1 (2Ze)2 1 (2Ze)2
r0 =  = where EK = K.E. of  - Particle
40  1 2  40 EK
 2 mv0 
 

Failure of Rutherford's Atomic model :-

(i) It couldn't explain the stability of atom.
(ii) It couldn't explain discrete nature of hydrogen spectra.

 Digital [2]

 Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom
Part - 04

Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom (Hlikeatomese)

55d
Bohr's theory of hydrogen atom is based on the following assumption

&
e–

=
v

mur hiet
M

r
nucleus
Ze

2arn = nd
An electron in an atom moves in a circular orbit about the nucleus under the influence of coulomb's
force of attraction between the electron and nucleus. As the atom as a whole is stable the coulombian
Fc
force of attraction provides necessary centripetal force.
H like Fe =

for
H
Ze2 mv2 - >
fee
40r2
=
r (2 =
…..(i)
1) - me
Only those orbits are possible for which the angular momentum of the electron is equal to an integral

=mar
,M
h
multiple of
2
i.e. r
h
mvr = n ...(ii)
2
Where h is Planck's constant. = -K
The electron moving in such allowed orbits does not radiate electromagnetic radiations. Thus, the
total energy of the electron revolving in any of the stationary orbits remains constant.
# Electromagnetic radiations are emitted if an electron jumps from stationary orbit of higher energy E2
to another stationary orbit of lower energy E1. The frequency n of the emitted radiation is related by
the equation.
E2 – E1 = h ...(iii)

 Digital [1]

 Drawbacks of Bohr Model
Part - 05

Drawbacks of Bohr Model

➢ This model could not explain the fine structure of spectral lines, Zeeman effect and Stark effect.
➢ This model is valid only for single electron systems. (can not explain electron-electron interaction)
➢ This model is based on circular orbits of electrons whereas in reality there is no orbit.
➢ Electron is presumed to revolve round the nucleus only whereas in reality motion of electron can not
be described.
➢ This model could not explain the intensity of spectral lines.
➢ It could not explain the doublets obtained in the spectra of some of the atoms.
➢ Bohr's model is semi quantum model, it means, it includes two quantum numbers (E and L) but
unfortunately it consider circular motion of electron.

 Digital [1]

 Radii of Orbit and Velocity of Revolving Electron
Part - 06 vX
En
Radii of orbits
Eaz
rxu n2
nh Z
From equation, v = , Here n is number of orbit
2mr
2
e2 m  nh  mn2h2 .40r2 n2h20
Substituting value of v in equation =  r = =
40r2 r  2mr  42m2r2e2 me2

In general rn =
n2h20
me2 2
...(iv) &
n
Equation (iv) shows that the radii of the permitted orbits vary as the square of n. For the smallest orbit
n = 1 substituting the values of h, 0, m and e we have
radius of first orbit r1 = 0.529 × 10–10 m = 0.529 Å
This calculations shows that the atom is about 10–10 meter in diameter

Velocity of Revolving Electron

To obtain the velocity of the revolving electron, we substitute the value of r from eq. (iv) in eq. (ii), we
have
V =
2 18x10? Z
.

 n2h20  h nh me2 1 e2 Z &

mv   = n  v = . . = ...(v) T
2 2 2 n2h20 m 2nh0
 me 
This expressions shows that the velocity of the electron is inversely proportional to n i.e. the electron
in the inner most orbit has the highest velocity.

Time Period
: T =

Erne
=> T =

To =5X10I

 Digital [1]

 Orbital Frequency of Electron
Part - 07

Frequency of Electron in an orbit

Frequency of electron is given by
1 v e2 1 me2 me4 z
= =  =   2 2 = 2 3 3 ...(vi)
T 2r 2nh0 2 n h 0 40h n
This expression shows that the frequency of an electron is inversely proportional to the cube of n.

66x1054z
8 = V
.z, Vo =

Nucleus dur to
#
Magnetic field on

B =

No S
B =

Bo ,
Bo =
1205

 Digital [1]

 Electron Energy
Part - 08

Electron Energy
The electron energy consist of two types:
(i) Kinetic energy and
(ii) Potential energy
1
(i) Kinetic energy is due to the motion of electron and its value is mv2 where v is the velocity of the
2
electron,
2
1 1  e2  me4
 K.E = mv2 = m   from equation  K.E. =
2 2  2nh0  8n2h220
(ii) Potential energy is due to the fact that electron lies in the electric field of positive nucleus. We
e
know that potential at a distance r from the nucleus is :- V =
40r

−e2 −e2  me2 −me4

The potential energy of electron of charge e is. P.E. = V × (– e) = = =
40r 40n2h20 4n2h220
So, total energy in nth orbit En = KE. + P.E.
me4 me4
 En = −
8n2h20 2
4n2h202
−me4
 En =
8n2h220

 Digital [1]

 Frequency of Emitted Radiation
Part - 09

Frequency of Emitted Radiation

The frequency of emitted radiations can be found from the following relation when electron jumps
from higher orbit n2 to lower orbit n1.
me4  1 1 
h = En2 − En1  = 2 3 
− 2 ...(viii)
80 h  n1 n2 
2

1 me4  1 1  me4
=  −  where R = ; R = Rydberg's constant = 10.97 × 106 m–1  1.1 × 107 m–1
 802h3c  n12 n22  802h3c
1  1 1 
= =R 2 − 2 
  n1 n2 

 Digital [1]

 Electron Energy Levels in Hydrogen Atom
Part - 10

Electron Energy Levels in Hydrogen Atom

Energy of an electron revolving in nth orbit is given by
−me4 (9.11  10−31 )(1.6  10−19 )4
En = = −
820h2n2 8(8.854  10−12 )2(6.62  10−34 )2 n2
21.7  10−19 21.7  10−19 1
=− joule = −  eV (∵ 1eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J)
n2 1.6  10−19 n2
−13.6
 En = eV
n2
The negative sign in energy shows that is thus electron is bound to the nucleus by attractive forces
and to separate the electron from the nucleus energy must be supplied to it. Giving different values
to n, we can calculate the energy of the electron in different orbits.
E1 = – 13.6 eV When n = 1 (K - Shell)
E2 = – 3.4 eV n = 2 (L - Shell)
E3 = – 1.5 eV n = 3 (M - Shell)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------
E = 0 eV n =  (Limiting case)

n= 0
Energy of Binding energy or
electron Ionisation energy n=5 –.54
n= 0 0 n=4 –0.85
excited states

n=3 –1.51
n=4 –0.85 eV +0.85 eV
n=3 –1.51 eV +1.51 eV n=2 –3.40
n=2 –3.4 eV +3.4 eV
ground state
n=1 –13.6 eV +13.6 eV n=1 –13.6
level energy (eV)

The diagram is known as energy level diagram. The lowest energy level (n = 1) correspond to normal
unexcited state of hydrogen. This state is also called as ground state. In energy level diagram the lower
energy (more negative) are at the bottom while higher energies (Less negative) are at the top. By such
a consideration the various electron jumps between allowed orbit will be vertical arrows between
different energy level. The energy of radiated photon is greater when the length of arrow is greater.

 Digital [1]

 Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom
Part - 11

Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom

It has been shown that the energy of the outer orbit is greater than the energy of the inner ones.
When the Hydrogen atom is subjected to external energy, the electron jumps from lower energy State
i.e. the hydrogen atom is excited. The excited state is not stable hence the electron return to its ground
state in about 10–8 seconds. The excess of energy is now radiated in the form of radiations of different
wavelength. The different wavelength constitute spectral series. Which are characteristic of atom
emitting, then the wavelength of different members of series can be found from the following
relations
1 1 1
= =R 2 − 2 
  n1 n2 
This relation explain the complete spectrum of hydrogen. A detailed account of the important
radiations are listed below.
(i) Lyman Series
The series consist of wavelength which are emitted when electron jumps from an outer orbits to the
first orbit i. e. the electron jumps to K orbit give rise to Lyman series.
Here n1 = 1 and n2 = 2, 3, 4, .......
The wavelengths of different members of Lyman series are:
(a) First member
In this case n1 = 1 and n2 = 2 hence
1  1 1  3R 4 4
=R 2 − 2  = or  = or = = 1216 × 10–10 m = 1216Å
 1 2  4 3R 3  10.97  106

(b) Second member

In this case n1 = 1 and n2 = 3 hence
1  1 1  8R 9 9
=R 2 − 2  = or = or = = 1026 × 10–10 m =1026Å
 1 3  9 8R 8  10.97  106
similarly, the wavelength of the other members can be calculated.
(c) Limiting member
In this case n1 = 1 and n2 =  , hence
1 1 1  1
=R 2 − 2  =R or =
 1   R
1
or  = = 912  10–10 m = 912Å This series lies in ultraviolet region.
10.97  106

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(ii) Balmer Series

This series is consist of all wavelengths which are emitted when an electron jumps from an outer orbit
to the second orbit i. e. the electron jumps to L orbit give rise to Balmer series.
Here n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4, 5 .........
The wavelength of different members of Balmer series.
(a) First member
In this case n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, hence
1  1 1  5R 36
=R 2 − 2  = or =
  2 3  36 5R
36
or  = = 6563 × 10–10m = 6563Å
5  10.97  106
(b) Second member
In this case n1 = 2 and n2 = 4, hence.
1  1 1  3R 16
=R 2 − 2  = or  =
  2 4  16 3R
16
or  = = 4861 × 10–10m = 4861Å
3  10.97  106
(c) Limiting member
1 1 1 R 4
In this case n1 = 2 and n2 = , hence = R  2 −  = =  = = 3646Å
 2   4 R
This series lies in visible and near ultraviolet region.
(iii) Paschen Series
This series consist of all wavelengths are emitted when an electron jumps from an outer orbit to the
third orbit i. e. the electron jumps to M orbit give rise to paschen series.
Here n1 = 3 and n2 = 4, 5, 6 .......
The different wavelengths of this series can be obtained from the formula
1 1 1 
=R 2 − 2  where n2 = 4, 5, 6 ........
  3 n2 
For the first member, the wavelength is 18750Å. This series lies in infra-red region.
(iv) Brackett Series
This series is consist of all wavelengths which are emitted when an electron jumps from an outer orbits
to the fourth orbit i. e. the electron jumps to N orbit give rise to Brackett series.
Here n1 = 4 and n2 = 5, 6, 7, ......
The different wavelengths of this series can be obtained from the formula
1 1 1
=R 2 − 2  where n2 = 5, 6, 7 ..........
  4 n2 
This series lies in infra-red region of spectrum.
(v) Pfund series
The series consist of all wavelengths which are emitted when an electron jumps from an outer orbit
to the fifth orbit i. e. the electron jumps to O orbit give right to Pfund series.
Here n1 = 5 and n2 = 6, 7, 8 .........

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Atoms Part-11

The different wavelengths of this series can be obtained from the formula
1 1 1 
=R 2 − 2  where n2 = 6, 7, 8 .......
  5 n2 
This series lies in infra-red region of spectrum.

Conclusion

S. No. Series Observed Value of n1 Value of n2 Position in the Spectrum

1. Lyman Series 1 2,3,4... Ultra Violet
2. Balmer Series 2 3,4,5... Visible
3. Paschen Series 3 4,5,6.... Infra-red
4. Brackett Series 4 5,6,7.... Infra-red
5. Pfund Series 5 6,7,8.... Infra-red

continuum

5th excited states n=6 –0.38eV

Pfund Series
4th excited states n=5 –.54
Brackett Series eV
3rd excited states n=4 –0.85eV
Paschen Series
2nd excited states n=3 –1.51eV
Balmer Series
1st excited state n=2 –3.40eV
Lyman Series

ground state n=1 –13.6

Figure: Conclusion in spectral form

Illustration 1.
A hydrogen atom in the ground state is excited by radiations of wavelength 975 Å.
Find : (a) the energy state to which the atom is excited.
(b) how many lines will be possible in emission spectrum
Solution.
(a)  = 975 Å = 975 × 10–10 m
1 1 1 1 1 1
=R 2 − 2  = R  = 1.1 × 107  12 − n2  or n = 4
 1 n  975 10−10  
(b) n = 4
n(n − 1)
∵ Number of spectral lines (N) =
2
4 (4 − 1)
∵N= =6
2
Possible transition 4 → 3, 4 → 2, 4 → 1, 3 → 2, 3 → 1, 2 → 1

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Atoms Part-11

Illustration 2.
Find the first and second excitation potentials of an atom when its ionisation potential is 122.4 V.
Solution.
122.4
I.P. = 122.4 V Eex1 = 122.4 – = 91.8 V
4
122.4
 Eex2 = 122.4 – = 108.8 V
9

Illustration 3.
Find the atomic number of atom when given that its ionisation potential is equal to 122.4 V.
Solution.

E 122.4
I.P. = 122.4 V E = Z2EH ∵ Z= = =3
EH1 13.6

Illustration 4.
Find the maximum wavelength of Brakett series of hydrogen atom.
Solution.
1 1 1 2516 1010
n1 = 4 and n2 = 5  =R 2 − 2  or max = = 40400 Å
 max 4 5  91.1107

Illustration 5.
Find the value of magnetic induction at the proton due to electron motion, if the radius of the first
orbit of hydrogen atom is 0.5 Å and the speed of electron in it is 2.2 × 106 m/sec.
Solution.
r = 0.5 Å and V = 2.2 × 106 m/sec
0 ev 10−7 1.610−19  2.2106
B= = = 14.08 Tesla
4 r2 2510−22

Illustration 6.
Find the ratio of equivalents current due to electron motion in first and second orbits of hydrogen
atom.
Solution.
3 3
1 I  n  2
In  3  1 = 2 =  = 8 : 1
n I2  n1   1 

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Illustration 7.
For the given transitions of electron, obtain the relation between 1, 2 & 3.

E3
2
E2
1 3
E1

Solution.
For given condition E3 – E1 = (E3 – E2) + (E2 – E1)
hc hc hc 1 1 1  21
 = +  = + Therefore 3 =
3  2 1 3  2 1 2 + 1

Illustration 8.
A hydrogen atom is in a state of ionization energy 0·85 eV. If it makes a transition to the ground state,
what is the energy of the emitted photon.
Solution.
Energy of emitted photon = 13.6 – 0.85 = 12.75 eV

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