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The Physics of Theism
The Physics of Theism
God, Physics, and the Philosophy
of Science

Jeffrey Koperski
This edition first published 2015
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Registered Office
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
Editorial Offices
350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA
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For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about
how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our
website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.
The right of Jeffrey Koperski to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in
accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears
in print may not be available in electronic books.
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trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best
efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the
accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding
that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher
nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other
expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Koperski, Jeffrey.
The physics of theism : god, physics, and the philosophy of science / Jeffrey Koperski.
  pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-93281-0 (cloth) – ISBN 978-1-118-93280-3 (pbk.)
1. Physics–Religious aspects. 2. Theism. 3. Religion and science.
4. Science–Philosophy. I. Title.
BL265.P4K67 2015
211′.3–dc23
2014025620
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Cover image: © Brett Charlton / iStockphoto
Set in 10.5/13pt Minion by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

1 2015
To my family, Marie, Andrew, Marcus, and Christopher
without whom this book
would have been completed twelve months sooner.

Not a bad tradeoff.

 Contents

Introduction1
I.1 Maps 1
I.2 Cosmology: Singularity and Creation 2
I.3 Overview 5
1 Science and Religion: Some Preliminaries 11
1.1 Conventional Wisdom 11
1.2 History 12
1.3 The Structure of Science 25
1.4 The Relation between Science and Religion 32
2 Fine-Tuning and Cosmology 58
2.1 What Is Fine-Tuning? 58
2.2 Examples 59
2.3 No Explanation Needed 66
2.4 Naturalistic Explanations 82
3 Relativity, Time, and Free Will 102
3.1 Physics and Freedom 102
3.2 STR and the Nature of Time 104
3.3 Contra the Block Universe 117
3.4 Two Suggestions from the Philosophy of Science 134
4 Divine Action and the Laws of Nature 146
4.1 Divine Intervention(?) 146
4.2 The Problems with Intervention 148
4.3 The Nature of the Laws of Nature 156
4.4 Noninterventionist Divine Action 159
4.5 QD: Pro and Con 165
4.6 Noninterventionism: Goring the Sacred Cow 177
4.7 Intervention and Determinism 182
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viii Contents

5 Naturalisms and Design 197

5.1 Science, Myths, and Legends 197
5.2 Intelligent Design 198
5.3 It’s Not Science 201
5.4 Faulty Demarcation 204
5.5 The Real Problems 214
5.6 A Last Word on Conservatism 219
6 Reduction and Emergence 225
6.1 Nothing but Atoms? 225
6.2 The Rise of Reductionism 226
6.3 Popping the Reductionist Bubble 228
6.4 Emergence 233
6.5 Problems and Puzzles 235
6.6 Physics, Causes, and Levels 238
6.7 Theology and Emergence 242
7 The Philosophy of Science Tool Chest 246
7.1 Tools 246
7.2 Realism and Truth 247
7.3 Antirealism 249
7.4 Realism and Religion 257
7.5 Models 259
7.6 Faith, Reason, and Trust 262
7.7 Anomalies and Mystery 266

Index275
 Introduction

I.1 Maps

History remembers the names of famous explorers, and it’s easy to see why.
Discovery is full of intrigue. It sparks the imagination. Once the explorers
have returned home, another group comes along: the cartographers. They
are somewhat less well known, and that also makes sense. The blazing of
the trail is a good story; map making … not so much. Still, if new territory
is to be accessible, what most of us need is a map of the terrain.
Something analogous is true in every academic discipline. There are those
on the cutting edge, breaking new ground and offering fresh insights. Then,
there are those who sort it all out, mapping out the camps and explaining
how things stand. Although I’ve done a bit of exploring, by nature I am a
cartographer. Explorers’ notes are often messy and hard to understand. This
book is a map of an unfamiliar terrain and a guide through it. The territory
of interest is found along the border of science and religion.
Theologians and philosophers of religion often look to science, especially
physics, for ideas. They want to know how the world was created, how God
might interact with it, and whether there are any fingerprints of divine action.
In the chapters that follow, we will consider how physics is relevant to matters
of religion, and more surprisingly perhaps, how the influence sometimes goes
the other way. If you want to know what quantum mechanics, relativity, and
chaos theory have to do with religious belief, this is a good place to start.
Very well, but why then is a philosopher writing this book? If we’re
talking about science and what it means, we usually hear from a physicist.

The Physics of Theism: God, Physics, and the Philosophy of Science,

First Edition. Jeffrey Koperski.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
2 Introduction

You never see a philosopher on CNN addressing these questions. You never
see a philosopher on CNN addressing any questions.
While that’s true, people outside of the ivory tower often don’t understand
the hyperspecialization of academia these days. Few scholars are able to keep
up with trends even in their own discipline. In addition, one’s training and
expertise are suited to specific needs, especially in science. Experimentalists
are experts in the collection and analysis of data. Theoreticians are in the
best position to develop and judge between competing theories. This divi-
sion of labor means that no one is simply an expert on “physics,” let alone the
whole of science. Still, it’s hard not to cross disciplinary borders on occasion.
Scientists sometimes offer opinions on matters of religion, although only
their negative remarks generally make the news. And insofar as the truth
about physical reality is relevant, scholars in religion and the humanities
want to be informed. This explains the proliferation of conferences, work-
shops, and centers devoted to the study of science and religion.
While these conferees might not realize it, the terrain on which this
discussion takes place is most often the philosophy of science. Within the
humanities, philosophers of science generally pay the closest attention to
the goings-on in science as well as its history. They make generalizations
about the nature of scientific inferences, the assumptions and implications
of science, and how each of these has changed over time. In short, philoso-
phers of science specialize in just the sort of questions that tend to emerge
in the science-and-religion literature. Hence, we tend to make good guides
for this terrain (or at least that’s what I’ve talked my publisher into believing).
This book aims at mediating a wide range of debates in which science, espe-
cially physics, plays a significant role in matters of religion.
The reader should know that while I try to give an accurate description
of the issues to be discussed, this is not a “neutral” textbook that one might
use in introductory courses. Like any philosopher, I have views on these
matters, and there are judgment calls to make at every turn. Not everyone
will agree with my analysis (but they should). To see what this approach
looks like, let’s briefly consider the recent history of cosmology.

I.2 Cosmology: Singularity and Creation

Modern cosmology has never just been about science. Although Einstein’s
field equations for general relativity showed that the universe would expand
or contract over time, that idea did not square with his philosophical views.
 Introduction 3

Einstein believed instead that the whole of space was “static.” To bring the
physics in line with what his philosophy said it should be, Einstein added
the infamous cosmological constant to his equations, a move he would
deeply regret.
The first widely accepted solutions of Einstein’s field equations predicted
that our universe has not always existed. (More precisely, the Friedmann–
Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) models have a finite time metric.)1
Many theists, including Pope Pius XII, were delighted by what came to be
known as the Big Bang since it seemed to confirm something like creation
ex nihilo. As astronomer Robert Jastrow put it,

For the scientist who has lived by his faith in the power of reason, the story
ends like a bad dream. He has scaled the mountains of ignorance; he is about
to conquer the highest peak; as he pulls himself over the final rock, he is
greeted by a band of theologians who have been sitting there for centuries.
(1992, 107)

Although Jastrow was an agnostic, this quote has been used by theists ever
since its publication.
As one might imagine, atheists reacted differently.2 Many, like physicist
William Bonnor, took the Big Bang as a religious doctrine masquerading as
science:

The underlying motive [for Big Bang cosmology] is, of course, to bring in
God as creator. It seems like the opportunity Christian theology has been
waiting for ever since science began to depose religion from the minds of
rational men in the 17th century. (Kragh 2004, 241–242)

Astronomer Fred Hoyle actually coined the term “Big Bang” as a pejorative,
declaring it “a form of religious fundamentalism” (Kragh 2004, 235). All
this motivated a search for solutions that did not entail a finite beginning.
The most successful of these was the steady-state model in which the uni-
verse was infinitely old and matter continually created throughout space,
not just once at the Big Bang. The steady-state model was seen by many on
both sides as being antitheistic or at least undercutting the need for a cre-
ator, as Carl Sagan argued: “This is one conceivable finding of science that
could disprove a Creator—because an infinitely old universe would never
have been created” (Halvorson and Kragh 2011, sec. 3). The debate between
the two rival views ranged from whether one was more scientific than the
other to questioning the scientific status of cosmology itself.3
4 Introduction

While the steady-state model was abandoned in the mid-1960s,4 the

search for alternative cosmologies goes on and religious beliefs continue to
play a role. One unsolved question is whether the Big Bang had a cause. The
universe exists, but why does it exist? Why is there a universe—galaxies,
quasars, and the rest—rather than nothing at all? Cosmologist and self-de-
scribed “antitheist” Lawrence Krauss purports to give an answer in his
recent book A Universe from Nothing: Why There Is Something Rather Than
Nothing. It contains a “scientific”—that is, nonphilosophical and nontheo-
logical—explanation for why there is a universe. Note, the question is not
merely why does this universe exist, but why is there anything at all. Many
have argued that the answer must be something outside the cosmos, what
Aristotle called the First Cause and what most theists call God. As the title
of his book declares, Krauss’s view is that the universe need not have been
created. It sprang up from nothing. One motivation for this, it would seem,
is the undermining of theism. Richard Dawkins sums it up this way in his
afterword to the book:

Even the last remaining trump card of the theologian, “Why is there
something rather than nothing?,” shrivels up before your eyes as you read
these pages. If On the Origin of Species was biology’s deadliest blow to super-
naturalism, we may come to see A Universe From Nothing as the equivalent
from cosmology. The title means exactly what it says. And what it says is
devastating. (Krauss 2012a, 191)

Claiming to have solved a longstanding metaphysical question, Krauss’s

arguments got the attention of philosophers. While he has a lot of inter-
esting things to say, the philosophers were, well, unimpressed. The issue has
to do with what exactly the physics entails. Let’s grant that everything
Krauss says about the science is correct. Has physics, even highly specula-
tive physics, shown that the universe could have spontaneously come into
existence from nothing? As philosopher David Albert (2012) points out,
Krauss’s “nothing” is somewhat peculiar. Among other things, it changes
according to the laws of quantum field theory. But wait: how did quantum
mechanics get in here? I thought we were talking about nothing. It turns out
that Krauss’s “nothing” is somewhat of a misnomer. His version of nothing
has physical properties and contains relativistic quantum fields. Albert and
others question whether such a well-defined physical entity counts as
nothing. Krauss has since backpedalled a bit and claims that he doesn’t
really care what philosophers and theologians mean by the word (Krauss
 Introduction 5

2012b). (As fellow cosmologist Sean Carroll notes, Krauss doesn’t have to
care, “but if the subtitle of your book is ‘Why There Is Something Rather
Than Nothing,’ you pretty much forfeit the right to claim you don’t …”
(Carroll 2012).)
For our purposes, all this serves as a nice illustration of the interplay
between science, philosophy, and religious belief. What Krauss has to say
is interesting and important. His arguments should be carefully consid-
ered by theologians and philosophers. Krauss himself has been pushed to
be more accurate and precise about his claims. The back and forth between
scholars of different disciplines pares away overstatements from real
advances in scientific knowledge. It also helps make clear what the impli-
cations of physics are for matters of philosophy and religion. It is this sort
of interdisciplinary crossover that we will have an eye on throughout the
rest of this book.

I.3 Overview

We are not finished with cosmology; but for now, let’s briefly consider what
is to come.

I.3.1 Science and Religion: Some Preliminaries

Skeptics often claim that science and religion are in conflict. Others say that
the two realms are too different for there to even be a conflict. As we will see
in Chapter 1, neither of these is the best way to understand the relation bet-
ween science and religion. To understand why, we need a clearer picture
about the nature of science itself. To do that, we begin with its history. As it
turns out, the conventional wisdom about science and religion is deeply
flawed. The relationship between the two is more subtle and complex than
is usually assumed. One reason for this is the role of metatheoretic shaping
principles. Such principles capture scientists’ views about the nature of the
physical world and how best to study it. If you’ve never heard of shaping
principles, that’s because they are rarely noticed. We generally think of
them as “just the way things are” from a scientific viewpoint. Shifts in these
principles are only evident across broad stretches of history. As we will see,
religious beliefs have had a surprising role in their development since the
beginning of the scientific revolution.
6 Introduction

I.3.2 Fine-Tuning and Cosmology

One of the standard topics in any Introduction to Philosophy course is
the teleological argument for the existence of God, more commonly
known as “the argument from design.” Versions of this argument can be
found in ancient times down through Paley’s famous watch analogy. As
we will see in Chapter 2, things got more interesting about 30 years ago. It
turns out that the universe is a bit like an aquarium. For life to be possible,
two dozen or so cosmological variables must have values within extremely
narrow ranges. Change any one by even a slight amount and living crea-
tures could not exist here or anywhere else in the universe. That is not
what physicists expected. The universe shouldn’t care whether life exists
or not. Why then do so many of its fundamental parameters seem to be
set to the precise values needed for our existence? Most physicists and
philosophers believe that fine-tuning needs an explanation. Theism, of
course, provides one answer: The universe looks fine-tuned for life
because it has been fine-tuned for life. Our cosmic environment bears the
earmarks of design. In this chapter, we consider some examples of fine-
tuning, the best naturalistic explanations for it, and whether the need for
explanation is itself based on faulty premises.

I.3.3 Relativity, Time, and Free Will

Chapter 3 presses into an old concern for philosophers: free will. Physics
has played a significant role in the conversation, often by undermining the
possibility of freedom. Some varieties of determinism were grounded in
Newtonian mechanics: If the behavior of all things, including the atoms in
our own bodies, is wholly determined by the laws of physics, then there
doesn’t appear to be any room left for free will. In such a world, a kicker
doesn’t choose to kick a field goal any more than the football chooses to go
through the goal posts. It’s all just a matter of the laws of physics working
themselves out.
No one worries about that particular form of determinism now that
Newtonian physics has been replaced by quantum mechanics. The story,
however, does not end there. Einstein’s theory of relativity also under-
mines free will as well as our commonsense view of time. According to
the most straightforward reading of relativity, time does not flow, and
there is no real difference between what we think of as the past and
future. From the four-dimensional perspective demanded by relativity,
 Introduction 7

almost all of our beliefs about time are based on an illusion. The future—
or at least what we already think of as the future—exists, and nothing
that happens in the present can change it. (Why didn’t anyone mention
that in my freshman physics class?) In Chapter 3, we will consider some
ways of reestablishing a flow of time within the “block universe” of rel-
ativity, the unique reality of the present, and where to find room for free
choice.

I.3.4 Divine Action and the Laws of Nature

Ever since the notion of a “law of nature” took hold in science, philosophers
and theologians have questioned God’s relationship to those laws. In some
theological circles today, it is taken for granted that God would seldom, if
ever, violate laws that God himself has ordained. At the same time, most
theists believe that God answers prayers and at times acts within the natural
order. How then can God act without violating his own laws? Since quantum
mechanics is not deterministic, many theologians and theistic scientists
believe that God works within the random gaps of quantum indeterminacy.
The accumulation of such small changes, they argue, can produce macro-
scopic effects. In Chapter 4, we will consider what would it be for God to
violate the laws of nature and what range of activity is possible by noninter-
ventionist means. I will argue that much of this debate should be reconsid-
ered on both scientific and theological grounds.

I.3.5 Naturalisms and Design

Intelligent design (ID) has been a controversial topic over the past decade.
While ID is usually associated with evolution, the relation between design
arguments and naturalism transcends biology. How one answers the ques-
tions involving ID ramifies across the other sciences, including physics.
While much has been written, it seems that even scholars cannot help but
get caught up in the culture war aspects of the controversy. In Chapter 5, I
attempt to reorient the debate away from ad hominem attacks and questions
about motives. Philosophers of science have made important advances in
our understanding of anomalies, theory change, and background beliefs
over the last 40 years. The ID debate can benefit from this work. Philosopher
Larry Laudan’s analysis of young earth creationism in the 1980s serves as an
important model.
8 Introduction

I.3.6 Reduction and Emergence

Reductionism is the view that, in principle, high-level theories, laws, and
complex entities can be explained by or reduced to a more basic level:
Psychology can be reduced to neurophysiology, neurophysiology to molec-
ular biology, molecular biology to organic chemistry, all the way down to
quantum field theory. While reductionism is not wholly a matter of physical
science, physics plays a key part since it is thought to describe the ground
floor of reality. Among analytic philosophers, this form of reductionism is
often considered to be a failed project. Theists have been keen on this
development since, of course, God cannot be reduced to physics. Many phi-
losophers and philosophically informed scientists are turning to the notion
of emergence as an alternative to reduction. Might the mind, for example, be
an autonomous entity that emerges from but is not identical to the brain?
Might each of the levels of reality above fundamental physics be irreducible
and emergent? What exactly does that mean? We will consider these ques-
tions and assess this new emphasis on emergence mostly by using examples
within physics itself.

I.3.7 The Philosophy of Science Tool Chest

Chapter 7 contains some suggestions for how tools in the philosophy of sci-
ence can help scholars in religion, theology, and the philosophy of religion.
These include matters of theory choice, anomalies and theory change, truth
and approximate truth, underdetermination, and realism/antirealism. As
esoteric as those might sound, they are useful for understanding a number
of questions including the nature of religious belief, the relationship bet-
ween religious traditions, and the role of faith.
Before we begin, I would like to acknowledge those colleagues and
friends who helped make this project a success. Helpful comments on the
text were provided by Chris Arledge, Peter Brian Barry, Ron Benson, Robert
Bishop, Robin Collins, Tammy DeRuyter, Hans Halvorson, Lorna Holmes,
Aaron Kostko, Al Lent, Alan Love, Bradley Monton, Bob O’Connor, Brian
Pitts, John Polkinghorne, Del Ratzsch, David Raup, Andrés Ruiz, Bob
Russell, David Schubert, Walter Schultz, Charles Taliaferro, Paul Teed, and
Dale Tuggy. A very special thanks to Philip West, who read the entire man-
uscript, offering helpful advice along the way. Finally, thanks to Rodney
Holder and Thomas Tracy who reviewed the book for Wiley-Blackwell and
provided very helpful comments and corrections.
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