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Pedro A. Noguera
Jill C. Pierce
Roey Ahram Editors

Race, Equity,
and Education
Sixty Years from Brown
Race, Equity, and Education
Pedro A. Noguera · Jill C. Pierce · Roey Ahram
Editors

Race, Equity, and Education

Sixty Years from Brown

13
Editors
Pedro A. Noguera Roey Ahram
University of California, Los Angeles New York University
Los Angeles, CA New York, NY
USA USA

Jill C. Pierce
New York University
New York, NY
USA

ISBN 978-3-319-23771-8 ISBN 978-3-319-23772-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23772-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015950880

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media

(www.springer.com)
Contents

Part I Introduction

Race, Education, and the Pursuit of Equity

in the Twenty-First Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Pedro A. Noguera

Part II Roots and Forms of Segregation

School Policy Is Housing Policy: Deconcentrating Disadvantage

to Address the Achievement Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Richard Rothstein

Perpetuating Separate and Unequal Worlds of Educational Opportunity

Through District Lines: School Segregation by Race and Poverty . . . . . . 45
Jennifer B. Ayscue and Gary Orfield

Kids, Kale, and Concrete: Using Participatory Technology

to Transform an Urban American Food Desert. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Antwi A. Akom, Aekta Shah and Aaron Nakai

Part III Complicating Racial Histories and Racial Categories

Charter Schooling, Race Politics, and an Appeal to History . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Lisa M. Stulberg

An Asian American Perspective on Segregated Schooling,

Brown v. Board, and Affirmative Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Evelyn Hu-DeHart

v
vi Contents

The Data Quality Movement for the Asian American and Pacific
Islander Community: An Unresolved Civil Rights Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Robert T. Teranishi, Bach Mai Dolly Nguyen and Cynthia M. Alcantar

Race and Education in the Mountain West: Charting New Territory

in America’s Racial Frontier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Sonya Douglass Horsford

Part IV Students’, Teachers’, and Families’ Educational Experiences

Critical Ethnic Studies in High School Classrooms: Academic

Achievement via Social Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Cati V. de los Ríos, Jorge López and Ernest Morrell

Incoherent Demands: Outcomes-Focused, Race to the Top-Aligned

Policies and Their Impact on Urban Teaching and Learning. . . . . . . . . . . 199
Jill C. Pierce

Mexican American Educational Stagnation: The Role of Generational

Status, Parental Narratives, and Educator Messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Casandra D. Salgado

“There’s Nothing for Us Here”: Black Families Navigating

the School/Prison Nexus 60 Years After Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Lawrence T. Winn and Maisha T. Winn

The Diversity of School and Community Contexts and Implications

for Special Education Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Roey Ahram

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Contributors

Roey Ahram New York University, New York, NY, USA

Antwi A. Akom San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, USA
Cynthia M. Alcantar UCLA Institute for Immigration, Globalization, and Education,
Los Angeles, CA, USA
Jennifer B. Ayscue UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Sonya Douglass Horsford Graduate School of Education, College of Education
and Human Development, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
Evelyn Hu-DeHart American Studies and Ethnic Studies, Brown University,
Providence, RI, USA
Jorge López Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA, USA
Ernest Morrell Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Aaron Nakai I-SEEED, Oakland, CA, USA
Bach Mai Dolly Nguyen UCLA Institute for Immigration, Globalization, and
Education, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Pedro A. Noguera UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Gary Orfield UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Jill C. Pierce New York University, New York, NY, USA
Richard Rothstein Economic Policy Institute, Washington, DC, USA
Cati V. de los Ríos Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
Casandra D. Salgado Department of Sociology, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Aekta Shah Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA

vii
viii Contributors

Lisa M. Stulberg Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human

Development, New York University, New York, NY, USA
Robert T. Teranishi UCLA Institute for Immigration, Globalization, and
Education, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Lawrence T. Winn University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
Maisha T. Winn University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
About the Authors

Roey Ahram is the Director of Research and Evaluation at New York University’s
Metropolitan Center for Research on Equity and the Transformation of Schools.
His work focuses on understanding the causes for educational inequities and
examining how schools can reduce those inequities through changes in policies
and practices.
Antwi A. Akom is part of a new generation of college professors, innovators, and
entrepreneurs building technology to inspire, equip, and mobilize people to solve
some of the world’s greatest challenges. In 2012 he co-founded the Institute for
Sustainable Economic, Educational, and Environmental Design (I-SEEED), an
award-winning nonprofit organization dedicated to building sustainable cities and
schools. In 2013 Dr. Akom co-founded Streetwyze (A Benefit Corporation)—a
best-in-class mobile, mapping, and SMS platform for residents to find goods
and services, take action on important issues, and visualize neighborhood health
and well-being. Dr. Akom has held academic appointments at UC Berkeley,
the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the University of California, San
Francisco (UCSF), and San Francisco State University. He holds a Ph.D. from the
University of Pennsylvania in Environmental Sociology, an M.A. in Education
from Stanford University, and a B.A. in Political Science/Economics from the
University of California, Berkeley.
Cynthia M. Alcantar is a doctoral student in Social Science and Comparative
Education and research associate for the Institute for Immigration, Globalization,
and Education at the University of California, Los Angeles and the National
Commission on Asian American and Pacific Islander Research in Education
(CARE). Cynthia earned her Master’s degree in Education from Claremont
Graduate University (CGU). Prior to her current roles, Cynthia worked as an
administrator for the Upward Bound Program at Norco Community College and
as an adjunct faculty and advisor for the McNair Scholars program at CGU. Her
research centers on college access, persistence, and completion of underserved and
underrepresented students, especially as they relate to higher education policy and
practice.

ix
x About the Authors

Jennifer B. Ayscue is a research associate at The Civil Rights Project/Proyecto

Derechos Civiles and a doctoral candidate in the Graduate School of Education
and Information Studies at University of California, Los Angeles. Her research
interests focus on desegregation in K-12 schools and the role of policy in fur-
thering the goal of diversity. Before attending UCLA, Ayscue earned an M.A. in
Social Sciences in Education from Stanford University and a B.A. in Elementary
Education from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
Cati V. de los Ríos is a former ESL, Spanish, and Ethnic Studies high school
teacher. She is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Arts and
Humanities at Teachers College, Columbia University and a research fellow at the
Institute for Urban and Minority Education (IUME) in Harlem. Cati received her
B.A. from Loyola Marymount University, an M.T.S and secondary teaching cre-
dential from Harvard University, and an Ed.M. in Curriculum and Teaching from
Teachers College, Columbia University.
Sonya Douglass Horsford is an Associate Professor of Education in the Graduate
School of Education and College of Education and Human Development at
George Mason University. Her research interests include the political and policy
contexts of education leadership with a focus on school desegregation, racial
inequality, and education reform in the post-Civil Rights Era. She is the editor of
three books and author of Learning in a Burning House: Educational Inequality,
Ideology, and (Dis)Integration (Teachers College Press, 2011).
Evelyn Hu-DeHart is Professor of History, American Studies and Ethnic Studies,
and past director of the Center for the Study of Race and Ethnicity in America,
Brown University. She has been researching and publishing on the history of
Chinese and other Asian migration to the Americas, especially Latin America and
the Caribbean and the U.S.-Mexico borderlands.
Jorge López is a National Board certified social studies teacher and an activist at
Roosevelt High School in the community of Boyle Heights in Los Angeles. He
has been teaching since 2002, after graduating from UCLA’s Teacher Education
Program. In 2009 he earned a second Master’s degree from UCLA’s Principal
Leadership Institute. He has taught courses in ethnic and cultural studies that
address youth of color, community history, social movements, counter-narratives,
critical media literacy, decolonization, and social justice. He recently co-authored
the book Critical Media Pedagogy: Teaching for Achievement in City Schools.
Jorge is pursuing a Ph.D. in Teaching, Learning, and Culture at Claremont
Graduate University.
Ernest Morrell is the Macy Professor of Education and Director of the Institute
for Urban and Minority Education (IUME) at Teachers College, Columbia
University. He is also a Fellow of the American Educational Research Association
and past-president of the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE). A for-
mer high school teacher, Ernest focuses his research on innovative socially, cul-
turally, and technologically relevant pedagogical practices that promote academic
About the Authors xi

achievement and civic engagement. He is the author of 60 articles and chapters

and six books. He received his Ph.D. in Language, Literacy, and Culture from UC
Berkeley.
Aaron Nakai is a critical educator who has served as a trainer, mentor, and youth
development specialist in a variety of community and education spaces for the
past 13 years. His graduate studies include a Master’s of Education focused on
Equity and Social Justice from San Francisco State University. He is currently the
Program Director of Health Equity and Community Engagement at the Institute
for Sustainable Economic, Educational and Environmental Design (I-SEEED) in
Oakland, CA. His work includes designing health and environmental equity cur-
riculum, implementing community-based action research projects, and co-teaching
early college/model high school classes in urban ecology, Ethnic Studies and envi-
ronmental justice. He is an expert facilitator who trains youth and youth-serving
adults to develop a range of projects for low-income youth of color, their families,
and their communities.
Bach Mai Dolly Nguyen is a doctoral student in Social Science and Comparative
Education and a research associate in the Institute for Immigration, Globalization,
and Education at the University of California, Los Angeles. Her research aims to
improve the educational outcomes of underrepresented students of color through
examining the impact of educational practice and policy, with particular attention
to Asian American and Pacific Islander students. She is currently the team lead
on the iCount data disaggregation initiative for the National Commission on Asian
American and Pacific Islander Research in Education (CARE).
Pedro A. Noguera is Distinguished Professor of Education at the Graduate School
of Education and Information Sciences at UCLA. He is author of several books
and serves at numerous national and local boards related to education and social
justice.
Gary Orfield is Distinguished Research Professor of education, law, political
science, and urban planning at University of California, Los Angeles. His research
interests are civil rights, education policy, urban policy, and minority opportunity.
He co-founded and directed the Civil Rights Project at Harvard and now serves
as co-director of the Civil Rights Project/Proyecto Derechos Civiles at UCLA.
Orfield’s central interest has been the development and the implementation of
social policy, with a focus on the impact of policy on equal opportunity for success
in American society.
Jill C. Pierce is a former high school English teacher, college counselor, edu-
cation coordinator, and research assistant. She is a Ph.D. candidate in urban
education and has a Master’s degree in Secondary English Education and an
undergraduate degree in Comparative Literature.
Richard Rothstein is a research associate of the Economic Policy Institute and
a senior fellow of the Chief Justice Earl Warren Institute on Law and Social Policy,
University of California (Berkeley) School of Law. He has authored Grading
xii About the Authors

Education: Getting Accountability Right (Teachers College Press and EPI, 2008);
Class and Schools: Using Social, Economic and Educational Reform to Close the
Black-White Achievement Gap (Teachers College Press and EPI 2004); and The
Way We Were? Myths and Realities of America’s Student Achievement (Century
Foundation, 1998). His work on residential segregation and schools includes the
“The Making of Ferguson” (2014), on the Economic Policy Institute website.
Casandra D. Salgado is a Ph.D. candidate in Sociology at the University of
California, Los Angeles. Her research interests focus on educational and wealth
inequality, and immigrant-native relations. Casandra is currently writing her disser-
tation, which examines the racial and immigration attitudes and wealth resources
of latter-generation Hispanics and Anglos in Albuquerque, New Mexico. She
earned her B.A. in Peace and Conflict Studies from the University of California,
Berkeley and M.A. in Sociology from the University of California, Los Angeles.
Aekta Shah is currently a Ph.D. candidate at Stanford University in Technology
Design and Program Director of Technology and Youth Engagement at the
Institute for Sustainable Economic, Educational and Environmental Design
(I-SEEED). At Stanford Aekta is engaged in research and development on issues
including technology, GIS mapping, education, and sustainable community devel-
opment. Committed to providing college and career opportunities to traditionally
underserved youth, Aekta has been recognized by organizations such as the Aspen
Institute, Green for All, and Bioneers and has presented for the UN on issues of
sustainable development and education. Aekta holds an Ed.M. in Education Policy
and Management from Harvard and a B.A. in Developmental Psychology and
Education from Dartmouth College.
Lisa M. Stulberg is Associate Professor of Educational Sociology at New York
University’s Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development.
She is the author of Race, Schools, and Hope: African Americans and School
Choice After Brown (Teachers College Press, 2008). She co-edited (with Eric
Rofes) The Emancipatory Promise of Charter Schools: Toward a Progressive
Politics of School Choice (SUNY Press, 2004). She co-edited (with Sharon
Lawner Weinberg) Diversity in American Higher Education: Toward a More
Comprehensive Approach (Routledge, 2011). She currently is co-writing a book
with Anthony S. Chen on the origins of race-conscious affirmative action in col-
lege admissions.
Robert T. Teranishi is Professor of Social Science and Comparative Education, the
Morgan and Helen Chu Endowed Chair in Asian American Studies, and co-director
for the Institute for Immigration, Globalization, and Education at the University
of California, Los Angeles. He is also a senior fellow with the Steinhardt Institute
for Higher Education Policy at New York University and principal investigator
for the National Commission on Asian American and Pacific Islander Research in
Education. His research examines the causes and consequences of the stratification
of college opportunities, with a particular interest on the impact of higher education
practice and policy on the mobility of marginalized and vulnerable communities.
About the Authors xiii

Lawrence T. Winn is a doctoral student in the School of Human Ecology in the

Civil Society and Community Research program at the University of Wisconsin,
Madison. Winn is a consultant for strategic partnerships for Race to Equity in
Madison, Wisconsin. He also served as Director of the Martin Luther King, Sr.
Community Resources Collaborative, Director of Development and Strategic
Partnerships for St. HOPE Academy, and the Executive Director of Uth Turn.
Winn earned a B.A. in English from the University of California, Berkeley, a
Juris Doctorate from Vanderbilt University Law School, and a Master of Divinity
degree from Princeton Theological Seminary.
Maisha T. Winn is the Susan J. Cellmer Chair in English Education and
Professor of Language and Literacy in the Department of Curriculum and
Instruction at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Winn is the author of many
books including Girl Time: Literacy, justice, and the school-to-prison pipe-
line, Humanizing Research: Decolonizing research with youth and communi-
ties (with Django Paris), and Education and Incarceration (with Erica Meiners)
as well as articles published in Harvard Educational Review; Review of Research
in Education, Race, Ethnicity, and Education; Anthropology and Education
Quarterly; Research in the Teaching of English, Journal of African American
History, Written Communication, and English Education.
 Part I
Introduction
Race, Education, and the Pursuit of Equity
in the Twenty-First Century

Pedro A. Noguera

When W.E.B. Du Bois, the renowned African-American historian and sociologist,

predicted that the question of the “color line” would be the primary problem for
American society in the twentieth century (Du Bois, 1903), he had no way of know-
ing that the problem he alluded to would extend well into the twenty-first century.
Similarly, when Swedish sociologist Gunnar Myrdal characterized America’s race
problem as a moral dilemma in the 1940s, one that threatened the veracity of the
nation’s proclaimed commitment to equality and democracy (Myrdal, 1944), like
Du Bois, he had no way of knowing that the moral threat posed by America’s inabil-
ity to make progress in eliminating barriers related to race would persist to the pre-
sent day.
The barriers observed by Du Bois and Myrdal have changed but in many ways
they are still firmly intact today, and they are apparent most clearly and profoundly
in the field of education.
It was not supposed to be this way. When the U.S. Supreme Court rendered its
historic decision in Brown versus Board of Education in 1954, it was supposed to
commence the beginning of the end of racial separation, in American schools and
throughout American society (Bell, 2004). However, more than 60 years after the
decision, it appears that the prediction of Du Bois has indeed extended into the
twenty-first century, and the observation of Myrdal continues to be painfully accu-
rate in the present day. Racial problems remain as intractable as ever, and progress
in the pursuit of racial equality remains exceedingly slow. This is particularly the

This chapter expands significantly on text from the following article: Noguera, P. A., Pierce, J. C.,
& Ahram, R. (2015). Race, education, and the pursuit of equality in the twenty-first century. Race
and Social Problems, 7(1), 1–4.

P.A. Noguera (*)

UCLA GSEIS, 1041 Moore Hall, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90095–1521, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 3

P.A. Noguera et al. (eds.), Race, Equity, and Education,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23772-5_1
4 P.A. Noguera

case in the field of education, where the lack of progress on matters pertaining to
racial equality has contributed to considerable controversy, conflict, and polariza-
tion throughout American society.
Lack of racial progress is evident on numerous fronts, from depictions of peo-
ple of color in U.S. history and social studies textbooks (Loewen, 1995) to the de
facto segregation of non-English speaking children and the absence of effective
bilingual education in most schools and school districts (García, 2005). Racial
controversies show up most prominently in the heated battles over standardized
testing and in simmering conflicts over disparities in school discipline practices. In
fact, although it is rarely stated, the increasingly acrimonious debate over the
direction of education policy, particularly as it plays itself out in America’s cities,
is largely about who will determine the best way to educate poor children of color
who constitute the overwhelming majority of students in these districts (Brill,
2011; Lipman, 2011). As the number of children from racial “minority” back-
grounds continues to grow and children of color1 become the majority of students
in more American public schools,2 how these children will be educated will
undoubtedly continue to be a matter of considerable debate because of the social,
economic, and political importance associated with this challenge.

Defining the Race Problem in American Education

To a large degree, the reason that race continues to be a persistent source of con-
troversy in American education is because even as the number of children of color
in American schools continues to grow, disparities in academic outcomes and
opportunities continue to be pervasive and persistent in American education. On
every measure of achievement and attainment, race continues to be a salient fac-
tor in defining and dividing the American student population. Policymakers are
increasingly aware of these patterns, and since 2001 they have typically framed
the problem as an “achievement gap” (Miller, 1995). Others have framed the prob-
lem as an “education debt” (Ladson-Billings, 2006) and an “opportunity gap”
(Carter & Welner, 2013; Schott Foundation for Public Education, 2015): a criti-
cal part of the legacy of racism and racial discrimination in the U.S., a legacy that
has produced and perpetuated unequal educational opportunities in the present,
­particularly for low-income children of color.

1Some authors in this volume use the term “racial minorities,” while others refer to students,
c­hildren, or people “of color.” Both terms typically denote Black and Latino groups, though
sometimes they encompass groups representing other racial-ethnic backgrounds, including Asian
Americans/Pacific Islanders and Native Americans.
2According to a report by Education Week, minority children were projected to become the

majority of children in U.S. public schools in 2014. The increase is “driven largely by dramatic
growth in the Latino population and a decline in the white population, and, to a lesser degree, by
a steady rise in the number of Asian-Americans” (Maxwell, 2014).
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