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CSC340: Computer Networks
Instructor:
Dr. Manzoor Ahmad
manzoorahmad@[Link].
pk
COMSATS University Islamabad,
Vehari Campus
Topics 2
OSI Model: The 7 Layers of Network Architecture
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Model Overview
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model describes how
networked systems communicate. It is a theoretical framework
for mapping how applications and devices link and send data
over a web of connections.
The OSI Model is called a “reference model” because it is rarely
used in practical applications.
Instead, it is most helpful in describing network protocols and
services.
The OSI Model is most often used to understand the theories
behind networked communication concepts and elements.
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Model Overview
Some use it to troubleshoot problems, narrowing a potential
issue to a specific layer of the model.
OSI layers are, indeed, fundamental to the OSI Model.
The framework is a stack of seven layers, each performing a
specific function, yet working together to transmit data from one
networked device to another.
The 7 layers of OSI model ensure the interoperability of
different devices and technologies from various vendors.
The OSI 7 layer model illustrates how information moves from a
sender to a receiver and back again. This image illustrates the 7
layers of OSI model architecture.
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Model 7 Layers
Physical Layer 6
Model (1/2)
The first OSI model layer describes the physical connections between
devices in a network.
Electrical, optic, or electromagnetic signal data moves from device to
device through the physical infrastructure defined by this layer.
Elements of the OSI layer model’s physical layer
Electrical, mechanical, and physical systems, parts, and devices
Specifications such as cable size, signal frequency, voltages, etc.
How a network is configured, such as a bus, with devices arranged
in a line with many stops, a star, with a central device surrounded
by an array of devices, a ring with devices in a connected circle, a
mesh of woven interconnections, and more
Physical Layer 7
Model (2/2)
Communication modes such as one-way simplex, two-way full duplex, or
half duplex, with messages going back and forth, but only one direction at
a time
Data transmission performance, such as bit rate, referring to how much
data is moving through a connection at a given time, and bit
synchronization to align the clocks of each device for accurate data
transmission
Modulation, switching, and interfacing with the physical transmission
medium
Common protocols for connections, including Wi-Fi, Ethernet, and others
Hardware, including networking devices, antennas, cables, modems, and
intermediate devices such as repeaters and hubs
The Data Link 8
Model Layer
The second OSI model layer describes data transmission between network
devices.
Data is sent in packets within a frame of special bit patterns or codes that
indicate the beginning and end of each packet.
These packets move through switches that route information through the
physical layer from one physical location to another.
The OSI data link layer has two sublayers:
The Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer manages flow and error controls to
ensure accurate data transmission between the network devices.
The Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer manages access and permissions
for transmitting data between devices. The function of this sublayer is to
manage which device controls a channel, moment to moment.
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Model The Network Layer
The third of the OSI layers organizes and transmits data between
multiple networks.
Network layer hardware includes routes, bridge routers, 3-layer
switches, and protocols such as Internet (IPv4) Protocol version
4 and Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6).
This layer routes data via the shortest or fastest physical path,
working around traffic controls, congestion, broken links, service
priority, and more.
It handles addressing logic to distinguish between the source and
destination networks. It divides data into packets to send and
then reassembles them at their destination.
The Transport 10
Model Layer
This layer deals with sending and delivering of complete and reliable data
from one device to another through a network or between networks.
Common transport layer protocols include the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) for connection-oriented data transmission and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) for connectionless data transmission. It include:
Error control, flow control, and congestion control are ways to keep track of
data packets, check for errors and duplication, and then to resend if there is an
error or failure.
Service-point addressing ensures that data is delivered to the correct protocol,
identified by a port number.
Packet segmentation and reassembly are processes for dividing data and
sending it sequentially, then rechecking it at its destination for integrity and
accuracy.
The Session Layer 11
Model (1/2)
This OSI Model layer concerns itself with managing session links
between network devices with a specific beginning and end.
The essential functions include establishing a link to start the session,
authenticating senders and receivers, authorizing communications
between devices and apps, maintaining the session, and terminating
the connection, which are the key functions.
A common session type is when an internet user visits and browses a
website for a specific period.
An essential concept in this layer is synchronization, in which
checkpoints during the session ensure a coordinated data flow that is
free of unplanned breaks or data loss.
The Session Layer 12
Model (2/2)
Common OSI session layer protocols include:
Remote procedure call protocol (RPC)
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
Session Control Protocol (SCP)
Session Description Protocol (SDP)
The Presentation 13
Model Layer (1/2)
Data flows as packets of code, often encrypted, through
networks. Presenting it in a useful format is the focus of the sixth
OSI model layer. The presentation layer deals with:
Data conversion
Character code translation
Data compression
Encryption and decryption
The Presentation 14
Model Layer (2/2)
To send text across a network, the characters of the alphabet convert
via a character coding system, such as the American Standard Code
for Information Interchange (ASCII) or Extended Binary Coded
Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) that is then encrypted and
compressed and sent over the network.
On the receiving end, the process reverses. Different kinds of data get
translated into different format codes.
The Application 15
Model Layer (1/2)
The top layer of the OSI 7 layer model is the application layer. It
is how a user application, such as a website, browser, email,
instant messaging, file transfers, or voice-over IP, interfaces with
the network.
Think of it as the window for accessing the network to send or
display data, which can be anything from a picture of your pet
cat to a database of statistics to a voice message.
It facilitates networking requests, determines resource
availability, synchronizes communication, and manages
application-specific networking requirements.
The Application 16
Model Layer (2/2)
The application layer also identifies constraints at the application
level, such as those associated with authentication, privacy,
quality of service, networking devices, and data syntax.
Common OSI application layer protocols include:
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Domain Name System (DNS)
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Model Summary
The OSI model is not widely used because of its complexity.
Every OSI layer has rules and operations, which make
implementation time-consuming and inefficient.
The simple TCP/IP model offered advantages that the OSI
Model could not match.
TCP/IP was already widely used when the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) launched the OSI 7 layer
model in 1984.
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ISO Model Vs. TCP/IP
The OSI vs. TCP/IP debate never really gained traction in the industry.
Vendors had already invested significant resources in TCP/IP products in
the ten-plus years before the launch of the OSI.
They had no incentive to manage the interoperability issues with the vast
choices of protocols and specifications offered by the OSI model.
Additionally, the creation of the OSI Model was driven by European
political and economic interests that didn’t want to be dependent on
technologies and equipment developed by American companies.
Hence, a non-governmental organization, the International Organization
for Standardization, designed the rather ponderous new model by
committee.
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TCP/IP
In the OSI vs. TCP/IP debate, the original technology claimed
advantages over the 7 layers of OSI model approach.
Since its development in the 1970s, TCP/IP has become the
proven standard that is widely used for most internet
communication. Among its advantages are:
Simplicity: With four simple and easy-to-understand layers, it is
straightforward to implement and maintain, unlike the 7 OSI layer
model.
Practicality: Because it was developed by the internet architects, TCP/IP
closely aligns with how the Internet is structured.
Scalability: The client-server architecture makes it easy to adapt and
expand.
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TCP/IP
Ubiquity: Because it has been widely used for decades, it
supports many devices and protocols. Finding well-trained and
experienced experts is easy.
Lightweight: It has a relatively small memory footprint and uses
little CPU, generally consuming minimal system resources.
Inexpensive: Because it is so much easier to implement and
talent is readily available, it costs less to use.
Internet of 21
ISO Model Today
The TCP/IP architecture model has a long record of success in real-
world network environments.
It has served as a solid and versatile foundation for the internet,
successfully addressing security, privacy, and performance-related
challenges.
Continued research and development, investments, and industry-wide
adoption of the OSI model could have made today’s cyber world a
different ( perhaps better) place.
Still, the pragmatism of the TCP/IP model has prevailed. Given its
wide use and the challenges inherent in the OSI model, the
ascendancy of the TCP/IP model is likely to remain for the
foreseeable future.
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