CHAPTER 18.

HEAT
TRANSFER

© 2007
TRANSFER OF HEAT is minimized by
multiple layers of beta cloth. These and other
insulating materials protect spacecraft from
hostile environmental conditions. (NASA)
Objectives: After finishing this
unit, you should be able to:
• Demonstrate your understanding
of conduction, convection, and
radiation, and give examples.
• Solve thermal conductivity
problems based on quantity of
heat, length of path, temperature,
area, and time.
• Solve problems involving the rate
of radiation and emissivity of
surfaces.
 Heat Transfer by
Conduction
Conduction is the process by which heat
energy is transferred by adjacent molecular
collisions inside a material. The medium
itself does not move.
Conduction Direction

From
hot to
cold.
 Thermal Conduction cont’d

The transfer can be viewed on an atomic scale.

It is an exchange of kinetic energy between
microscopic particles by collisions.
 The microscopic particles can be atoms,
molecules or free electrons.
Less energetic particles gain energy during collisions
with more energetic particles.
Rate of conduction depends upon the characteristics of
the substance.
 Heat Transfer by
Convection
Convection is the process by which
heat energy is transferred by the
actual mass motion of a heated fluid.

Heated fluid rises and is then Convection

replaced by cooler fluid, producing
convection currents.

Convection is significantly affected

by geometry of heated surfaces.
(wall, ceiling, floor)
Convection cont’d

 When the movement results from differences in

density, it is called natural convection.
 When the movement is forced by a fan or a
pump, it is called forced convection.
 Heat Transfer by
Radiation
Radiation is the process by
which heat energy is transferred
by electromagnetic waves.

Radiation

Atomic Sun
No medium is required !
 Kinds of Heat Transfer

Consider the operation of a typical coffee

maker:
Think about how heat is
transferred by:

Conduction
?
Convectio
n?
Radiation
?
 Heat Current
The heat current H is defined as the
quantity of heat Q transferred per unit of
time in the direction from high
temperature to low temperature.

Steam Ice
Q
H ( J / s)


Typical units are: J/s, cal/s, and Btu/h

 Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity
k of a material is a t1 t2
measure of its ability to
conduct heat.
H = Heat current (J/s)
A = Surface area (m2)
t = t2 -
t = Temperature
difference t1
L = Thickness of
material

QQ kA
kAtt QL
QL J
H
H    kk 
 Units 
 LL AAtt s m C0
 The SI Units for
Conductivity
Hot Cold QL
QL
kk 

AAtt

For
For Copper:
Copper: kk = = 385
385 J/s
J/s m
m
CC00
Taken
In SI literally,
units, this means
typically small that for afor
measures 1-m
In SI units, typically small measures for
length Lofand
length copper
area whose
A must cross
be section isto
converted 1
length L and area A must be converted to
m and and
2
meters whose end meters,
square points differ in
respectively,
meters and square meters, respectively,
temperature
before by 1 Cinto
substitution
0
, heat will be
formulas.
before substitution into formulas.
conducted at the rate of 1 J/s.
 Older Units for
t = 1 F Conductivity
0
Older units, still active, use
 common measurements for
h 2 area in ft2 time in hours,
A=1 ft
length in inches, and
Q=1 Btu quantity of heat in Btu’s.
L = 1 in. Glass k = 5.6 Btu in./ft2h F0

Taken literally, this means that for a 1-in.

thick plate of glass whose area is 1 ft2 and
whose sides differ in temperature by 1 F0,
heat will be conducted at the rate of 5.6
Btu/h.
 Thermal Conductivities
Examples of the two systems of units used for thermal
conductivities of materials are given below:

o
Material J/s m C Btu in/ft 2 h F0

Copper: 385 2660

Concrete or 0.800 5.6

Glass:

Corkboard: 0.040 0.30

Examples of Thermal
Conductivity
Comparison of Heat Currents for Similar Conditions:
L = 1 cm (0.39 in.); A = 1 m2 (10.8 ft2); t = 100
C0

Aluminum: 2050 kJ/s 4980 Btu/h

3850 kJ/s 9360 Btu/h

Copper:

Concrete or 8.00 kJ/s 19.4 Btu/h

Glass:

Corkboard: 0.400 kJ/s 9.72 Btu/h

 Example 1: A large glass window measures
2 m wide and 6 m high. The inside surface is
at 200C and the outside surface is at 120C.
How many joules of heat pass through this
window in one hour? Assume L = 1.5 cm
and that k = 0.8 J/s m C0.
A = (2 m)(6 m) = 12 m 2 20 0
C 12 0
C

kAt
Q kAt
H  ; Q A = 1 h
 L L Q=?
(0.8 J/m s C0 )(12 m 2 )(8 C0 )(3600 s) t = t2 -
Q
0.0150 m t1 = 8
0.015 m C
0

Q
Q == 18.4
18.4 MJ
MJ
 Example 2: The wall of a freezing plant is
composed of 8 cm of corkboard and 12 cm
of solid concrete. The inside surface is at
-200C and the outside surface is +250C.
What is the interface temperature ti?
H H ti
Note:     -20 C
0
250C
 A  Cork  A  Concrete

k1  ti  ( 200 C)  k2  250 C - ti  H
 A
L1 L2
0 0
Stead
k1 (ti  20 C) k2 (25 C - ti ) y

L1 L2 8 cm 12 cm Flow
Example 2 (Cont.): Finding the
interface temperature for a composite
wall.
0 0 ti
k1 (ti  20 C) k2 (25 C - ti ) -20 C
0
250C

L1 L2
H
Rearranging factors gives:
A
k1L 2 Stead
(ti  200 C) (250 C - ti ) y
k2 L1
8 cm 12 cm Flow

k1L 2 (0.04 W/m C0 )(0.12 m)

 0
0.075
k2 L1 (0.8 W/m C )(0.08 m)
 Example 2 (Cont.): Simplifying, we
obtain:
0 0 ti
(0.075)(ti  20 C) (25 C - ti ) -20 C
0
250C
0.075ti + 1.50C = 250C - ti
H
From which: tti i =
= 21.9 CC
21.900
A
Knowing the interface temperature Stead
y
ti allows us to determine the rate of
8 cm 12 cm Flow
heat flow per unit of area, H/A.
The quantity H/A is same for cork or concrete:
QQ kA
kAtt H  kktt
H
H
H    ;; 
 LL A
A LL
 Example 2 (Cont.): Constant steady state
[Link] H/A is constant so
Over
ti
different k’s cause different -20 C
0
250C
t’s
Cork: t = 21.90C - (-200C) = 41.9 C0
H
Concrete: t = 250C - 21.90C = 3.1 A
C0
Stead
QQ kA
kAtt H  kktt
H y
H
H    ;; 
 LL A
A LL 8 cm 12 cm Flow

Since H/A is the same, let’s just choose concrete alone:

H k t (0.8 W/mC0 )(3.1 C0 ) H

H  20.7 W/m 22
   20.7 W/m
A L 0.12 m AA
 Example 2 (Cont.): Constant steady state
flow.
H
H  20.7 W/m 22 ti
 20.7 W/m -20 0
C 25 0
C
AA
Cork: t = 21.9 C - (-20 C) = 41.9 C
0 0 0 H
A
Concrete: t = 250C - 21.90C = 3.1
C0 Stead
y
Note that 20.7 Joules of heat per 8 cm 12 cm Flow
second pass through the composite
wall. However, the temperature IfIf A
A == 10
10 mm2,, the
2
the
interval between the faces of the heat
heat flow
flow inin 11 hh
cork is 13.5 times as large as for the would
would be be ______?
745 kW
______?
concrete faces.
 Radiation
The rate of radiation R is the energy
emitted per unit area per unit time (power
per unit area).
Rate of Radiation QQ PP PP
(W/m2):
RR 
   RR  e
 e T T 44
AA AA AA

Emissivity,
Emissivity, ee :: 00 >> ee >> 11

Stefan-Boltzman
Stefan-Boltzman Constant
Constant ::
 =
= 5.67
5.67 xx 10
10-8 W/m·K
-8
W/m·K4
4
 Example 3: A spherical surface
12 cm in radius is heated to Find Power
6270C. The emissivity is 0.12. Radiated
What power is radiated?
A 4 R 4 (0.12 m)
2 2
A
A = 0.181 m2
T = 627 + 273; T = 900 K
6270C
ee AT
44
PP  AT
-8 4 2 4
P (0.12)(5.67 x 10 W/mK )(0.181 m )(900 K)

Power Radiated from Surface: PP =

= 808
808 W
W
 Summary: Heat Transfer
Conduction: Heat energy is
transferred by adjacent
molecular collisions inside a
material. The medium itself
does not move.
Convection is the process
by which heat energy is
transferred by the actual
mass motion of a heated
fluid.
Radiation is the process by
which heat energy is
transferred by
electromagnetic waves.
 Summary of Thermal
The thermal Conductivity
conductivity
k of a material is a t1 t2
measure of its ability to
conduct heat.
H = Heat current (J/s)
A = Surface area (m2)
t = t2 -
t = Temperature
difference t1
L = Thickness of
material

QQ kA
kAtt QL
QL J
H
H    kk 
 Units 
 LL AAtt s m C0
 Summary of Radiation
The rate of radiation R is the energy
emitted per unit area per unit time (power
per unit area).

Rate of Radiation R  QQ  PP PP
eeTT
44
R   RR 
 
(W/mR ):
2
AA AA AA
Emissivity,
Emissivity, ee :: 00 >> ee >> 11

Stefan-Boltzman
Stefan-Boltzman Constant
Constant ::
 = 5.67 x 10 -8 W/m·K44
-8
= 5.67 x 10 W/m·K
 Summary of Formulas
QQ kA
kAtt QL
QL J
H
H    kk 
 Units 
 LL AAtt s m C0

QQ kA
kAtt H  kktt
H
ee AT
44
H
H    ;;  PP  AT
 LL A
A LL

QQ PP PP
eeTT
44
RR 
   RR 
 
AA AA AA
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer In Thermal Processes

We want to know the rate at which energy is transferred.

There are various mechanisms responsible for the transfer:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

Section 20.7
Conduction
Conduction /Thermal Conduction - The process of energy transfer by heat
The transfer can be viewed on an atomic scale.
It is an exchange of kinetic energy between microscopic particles by
collisions.
 The microscopic particles can be atoms, molecules or free electrons.
Less energetic particles gain energy during collisions with more energetic
particles.
Rate of conduction depends upon the characteristics of the substance.

Section 20.7
Conduction, cont.

In general, metals are good thermal conductors.

They contain large numbers of electrons that are relatively free to move
through the metal.
They can transport energy from one region to another. Poor conductors
include asbestos, paper, and gases.
Conduction can occur only if there is a difference in temperature between two
parts of the conducting medium.

Section 20.7
Conduction, equation

The slab at right allows energy to

transfer from the region of higher
temperature to the region of lower
temperature.
The rate of transfer is given by:
Q dT
P  kA
t dx
(Law of thermal conduction)

Section 20.7
Conduction, equation explanation

A is the cross-sectional area.

dT is the temperature difference.
dx is the thickness of the slab.
Or the length of a rod

P is in Watts when Q is in Joules and t is in seconds. k is the thermal

conductivity of the material.
Good conductors have high k values and good insulators have low k values.

Section 20.7
Some Thermal Conductivities

Section 20.7
Temperature Gradient

The quantity |dT / dx| is called the

temperature gradient of the material.
It measures the rate at which temperature
varies with position.
For a rod, the temperature gradient can
be expressed as:

dT Th Tc dx L


Using the temperature gradient for the

rod, the rate of energy transfer
becomes:

Tc 
P  kA L 

Th
Section 20.7
Compound Slab

For a compound slab containing several materials of various thicknesses (L1, L2,
…) and various thermal conductivities (k1, k2, …) the rate of energy transfer
depends on the materials and the temperatures at the outer edges:

A Th  Tc 
P
i Li ki 

Section 20.7
Home Insulation

Substances are rated by their R-values.

R = L / k and the rate becomes

A Th  Tc 
P
i

Ri
For multiple layers, the total R value is the sum of the R values of each layer.
Wind increases the energy loss by conduction in a home.
Insulation Values

Section 20.7
Convection

Energy transferred by the movement of a substance.

It is a form of matter transfer:
When the movement results from differences in density, it is called natural
convection.
When the movement is forced by a fan or a pump, it is called forced
convection.

Section 20.7
Convection example
Air directly above the radiator is
warmed and expands.
The density of the air decreases, and it
rises.
A continuous air current is established.

Section 20.7
Radiation
Radiation does not require physical contact.
All objects radiate energy continuously in the form of electromagnetic waves due
to thermal vibrations of their molecules.
Rate of radiation is given by Stefan’s law.

Section 20.7
Stefan’s Law

P= σAeT4
P is the rate of energy transfer, in Watts.
σ = 5.6696 x 10-8 W/m2 . K4
A is the surface area of the object.
e is a constant called the emissivity.
 e varies from 0 to 1
 The emissivity is also equal to the absorptivity.
T is the temperature in Kelvins.

Section 20.7
Ideal Absorbers
An ideal absorber is defined as an object that absorbs all of the energy incident
on it.
e = 1
This type of object is called a black body.
An ideal absorber is also an ideal radiator of energy.

Section 20.7
Energy Absorption and Emission by Radiation

With its surroundings, the rate at which the object at temperature T with
surroundings at To radiates is
Pnet = σAe (T 4 –To )
4

When an object is in equilibrium with its surroundings, it radiates and

absorbs at the same rate.
 Its temperature will not change.

Section 20.7
The Dewar Flask

A Dewar flask is a container designed to minimize the energy losses by

conduction, convection, and radiation.
Invented by Sir James Dewar (1842 – 1923)
It is used to store either cold or hot liquids for long periods of time.
A Thermos bottle is a common household equivalent of a Dewar flask.

Section 20.7
Dewar Flask, Details

The space between the walls is a

vacuum to minimize energy transfer by
conduction and convection.
The silvered surface minimizes energy
transfers by radiation.
Silver is a good reflector.
The size of the neck is reduced to
further minimize energy losses.
CONCLUSION: Chapter 18
Transfer of Heat