MODULE VI:

Radioactivity, Isotopes and its

Applications in Biology
What is radioactivity?
• Radioactivity is the process by which unstable atomic nuclei
release energy by emitting radiation.

• This radiation can be in the form of particles or

electromagnetic waves.
Basic concepts of radioactivity

• Radioactive elements: Atoms with unstable nuclei that emit

radiation to become more stable.

• Radioisotopes: Unstable forms of elements that emit radiation

to become more stable.

• Radiation: Energy released from matter in the form of rays or

high-speed particles .

• Radioactive decay: The process by which an unstable atomic

nucleus loses energy by radiation .
Types of radioactive decay

• Alpha decay: An unstable atomic nucleus emits a helium

nucleus (alpha particle)

• Beta decay: An atomic nucleus emits an electron (beta

particle)

• Gamma decay: A type of radioactive decay that is governed by

electromagnetic and nuclear forces
 Alpha Decay
• Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an unstable atomic nucleus
loses energy by emitting an alpha particle.

• An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, which is the same as a

helium-4 nucleus.

• Occurs in Heavy Nuclei: Typically occurs in large, heavy elements like uranium,
radium, and thorium that have too many protons or neutrons for stability.

• Energy Release: Alpha decay results in the emission of a relatively high-energy

alpha particle, causing the original atom to lose mass and atomic number.

• Effect on the Atom:

• The atom's atomic number decreases by 2 (since 2 protons are lost).
• The mass number decreases by 4 (since 2 protons and 2 neutrons are lost).

• Example: In the decay of uranium-238, an alpha particle is emitted,

transforming it into thorium-234 (
 Beta Decay
• Beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an unstable
atomic nucleus transforms into a more stable one by emitting
a beta particle.

• There are two types of beta decay: beta-minus (β⁻) and beta-
plus (β⁺).

• Beta-minus (β⁻) Decay:

• Process: A neutron in the nucleus is converted into a proton,
releasing a beta-minus particle (electron) and an antineutrino.
• Effect:
• The atomic number increases by 1 (since a neutron is converted into
a proton).
• The mass number remains unchanged
Example: In the decay of carbon-14
Beta-plus (β⁺) Decay:

• Process: A proton in the nucleus is converted into a neutron,

emitting a beta-plus particle (positron) and a neutrino.

• Effect:
• The atomic number decreases by 1 (since a proton is lost).
• The mass number remains unchanged.

• Example: In the decay of positron-emitting isotopes like

fluorine-18
 Gamma Decay
• Gamma decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an
unstable nucleus releases gamma radiation (γ), which is a
high-energy form of electromagnetic radiation (photons).

• This occurs typically as the nucleus moves from a higher

energy state (excited state) to a lower energy state (ground
state).
 UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY
• The units used to measure radioactivity include the Becquerel
(Bq), Curie (Ci), and Rutherford (rd).

Becquerel (Bq)
• The SI unit for radioactivity, named after Henri Becquerel
• One Bq is equal to one radioactive decay per second
• Multiples of Bq include kBq (10^3), MBq (10^6), and GBq (10^9)

Curie (Ci)
• An older unit of radioactivity, named after Pierre and Marie Curie
• One Ci is equal to 3.7 x 10^10 radioactive decays per second
• Fractions of Ci include milliCurie (mCi, 10^-3Ci) and microCurie
(µCi, 10^-6Ci)
Rutherford (rd)
• One rd is equal to 10^6 disintegrations per second (dps)
• The rutherford was a non-SI unit that measured the rate of
radioactive decay.
• It was defined as the activity of a radioactive material where
one million nuclei decay each second.
 DISINTEGRATION
CONSTANT
• A "disintegration constant" in radioactivity refers to the
probability per unit time that a single radioactive nucleus will
decay, essentially representing how quickly a radioactive
substance decays; it is symbolized by the Greek letter "λ"
(lambda) and is measured in units of reciprocal time (like per
second, per minute, etc.)

Definition:
• It is the ratio of the instantaneous rate of disintegration of a
radioactive sample to the number of radioactive nuclei
present at that time.
Formula:
• The radioactive decay law states that the rate of decay is
directly proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei
present, expressed as:

• dN/dt = -λN,

• where N is the number of nuclei and dN/dt is the rate of

decay.
 HALF LIFE
• The half-life of a radioactive material is the time it takes for half of
the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay.

• The half-life of a radioactive material varies depending on the type

of material.

Examples of half-lives

• Radon: 3.8 days

• Radium: 1,600 years
• Uranium-238: 4.5 billion years
• Strontium-90: 30 years
• Cesium-137: 30 years
• Plutonium-239: 24,000 years
• Carbon-14: 5,700 years
• Cobalt-60: 5.26 years
How half-life works?
• After one half-life, half of the original amount of radioactive
material will have decayed.
• After two half-lives, the amount of radioactive material will
have decreased to a quarter of the original amount.
• The half-life of a radioactive material is a characteristic
property of each radioisotope.

Uses of half-life
• Half-life can be used to determine the age of fossils and
wooden objects.
• Radiographers use half-life information to determine how
much radiation a source in a gamma camera is producing.
TYPES OF RADIOISOTOPES
IN BIOCHEMISTRY
1. Carbon-14 (¹⁴C)

• Type of Radiation: Beta radiation (β)

• Half-life: 5,730 years

• Applications:
• Used to label organic molecules, such as amino acids, sugars,
lipids, and nucleotides, in metabolic studies.

• Helps trace the path of carbon atoms through biochemical

pathways (e.g., photosynthesis, cellular respiration).

• Widely used in radiolabeled assays and in tracing carbon in

various biochemical reactions.
2. Phosphorus-32 (³²P)

• Type of Radiation: Beta radiation (β)

• Half-life: 14.3 days

• Applications:
• Commonly used for labeling nucleotides (like ATP) in DNA and
RNA studies.

• Used in the detection of phosphorylation in proteins and the

study of protein signaling pathways.

• Useful in measuring enzyme activity and studying DNA

replication, repair, and transcription.
3. Phosphorus-33 (³³P)

• Type of Radiation: Beta radiation (β)

• Half-life: 25.3 days

• Applications:
• Often used in similar applications to ³²P but with a longer half-life.

• Used to label nucleic acids and study DNA and RNA synthesis, as
well as protein phosphorylation.
4. Iodine-125 (¹²⁵I)

• Type of Radiation: Gamma radiation (γ)

• Half-life: 59.4 days

• Applications:

• Commonly used in immunoassays, including radioimmunoassays

(RIA) and immunohistochemistry for detecting proteins,
hormones, and other biomolecules.

• Often used to label proteins or antibodies for detection in various

applications, including binding studies and receptor-ligand
interactions.
5. Iodine-131 (¹³¹I)

• Type of Radiation: Beta and Gamma radiation (β and γ)

• Half-life: 8.02 days

• Applications:

• Used in medical diagnostics and therapy, particularly in thyroid

function tests and the treatment of thyroid cancer.

• In biochemistry, used for labeling proteins, especially in studies of

thyroid hormones and related pathways.
6. Sulfur-35 (³⁵S)

• Type of Radiation: Beta radiation (β)

• Half-life: 87.5 days

• Applications:
• Used for labeling proteins and peptides, particularly in the study
of sulfur-containing amino acids like cysteine and methionine.

• Useful in studying protein synthesis and in understanding sulfur

metabolism.
7. Tritium (³H)

• Type of Radiation: Beta radiation (β)

• Half-life: 12.3 years

• Applications:

• Used to label water (H₂O), nucleic acids, and proteins, particularly

in experiments involving tritiated water in studies of biochemical
reactions.

• Widely used in the labeling of nucleotides (e.g., tritiated

thymidine) for studies on DNA replication and cell division.
9. Cobalt-60 (⁶⁰Co)

• Type of Radiation: Gamma radiation (γ)

• Half-life: 5.27 years

• Applications:

• Sometimes used in sterilization of laboratory equipment and

biological samples.

• Used in various radiolabeling experiments, especially in radiation

therapy research and radiobiology.
10. Strontium-89 (⁸⁹Sr)

• Type of Radiation: Beta radiation (β)

• Half-life: 50.5 days

• Applications:
• Primarily used in medical applications for bone pain treatment in
cancer patients but can also be used in research to study calcium
metabolism and bone turnover.
 APPLICATIONS OF
RADIOISOTOPES IN BIOLOGY
• Radioisotopes have numerous biological applications,
primarily in biochemistry, medicine, and biological research.

• Due to their ability to emit radiation, they are invaluable tools

for tracing the movement and interactions of molecules within
living systems.
1. Tracer Studies in Metabolism

• Application:

• Radioisotopes are widely used to track the pathways of molecules

in metabolic processes.

• By incorporating a radioisotope into a molecule (e.g., glucose,

amino acids, or lipids), scientists can monitor the molecule’s
movement and transformation within the body.

• Examples:

• Carbon-14 (¹⁴C): Used to trace the flow of carbon atoms in metabolic

pathways such as glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and fatty acid
oxidation.

• Phosphorus-32 (³²P): Used to study phosphate transfer in biochemical

reactions and to monitor ATP usage in cellular processes.
2. Radioimmunoassay (RIA)

• Application: RIA is a highly sensitive technique used to

measure the concentration of specific antigens (like
hormones, drugs, or proteins) in biological samples.

• In this method, a radioisotope-labeled antigen competes with

an unlabeled antigen in a sample for binding to a specific
antibody.

• Examples:

• Iodine-125 (¹²⁵I): Commonly used to label antibodies or antigens

in immunoassays, especially for detecting hormones (e.g., thyroid
hormones, insulin, or cortisol).

• Tritium (³H): Also used for labeling antibodies in RIA for

measuring hormones, proteins, or drugs.
3. Medical Imaging

• Application: Radioisotopes are used in diagnostic imaging

techniques to visualize and assess the function of organs and
tissues.

• Examples:

• Technetium-99m (⁹⁹mTc): Used in Single Photon Emission

Computed Tomography (SPECT) to image organs, tissues, and
even tumors in medical diagnostics. It's particularly used for bone
scans, cardiac imaging, and cancer diagnostics.

• Iodine-131 (¹³¹I): Commonly used in thyroid imaging to assess

thyroid function and in the treatment of thyroid cancer.
4. Cancer Treatment (Radiotherapy)

• Application:

• Radioisotopes are used in radiation therapy to treat cancer.

• Radioisotopes emit radiation that targets and kills cancerous

cells, often with minimal damage to surrounding healthy tissue.

• Examples:

• Iodine-131 (¹³¹I): Used to treat thyroid cancer by selectively

irradiating thyroid tissue, which is particularly effective since
thyroid cells naturally absorb iodine.

• Phosphorus-32 (³²P): Used in treating certain blood cancers, such

as polycythemia vera, by targeting bone marrow cells.
5. Radiolabeling of DNA, RNA, and Proteins

• Application:

• Radioisotopes can be incorporated into nucleic acids or proteins to

trace and study their synthesis, interactions, and degradation in cells
and tissues.

• Examples:
•
• Tritium (³H): Used to label DNA or RNA, enabling researchers to track the
synthesis, repair, and replication of nucleic acids.

• Phosphorus-32 (³²P): Frequently used to label DNA or RNA for

hybridization studies, such as in Southern and Northern blotting
techniques to study gene expression and sequences.

• Sulfur-35 (³⁵S): Used to label proteins containing sulfur-containing amino

acids (like cysteine and methionine) for protein synthesis studies.
6. Protein-Protein Interactions

• Application:

• Radioisotopes can be used to label specific proteins to track their

interactions, conformation changes, and cellular localization.

• This is useful for understanding signaling pathways, enzyme

activities, and protein functions.

• Examples:

• Tritium (³H) or Carbon-14 (¹⁴C): Can be incorporated into proteins to

study their binding with receptors or other proteins.

• Phosphorus-32 (³²P): Can label phosphate groups for studies on

protein phosphorylation and the role of kinases in cellular signaling.
7. Gene Expression Studies

• Application: Radioisotopes are used in research to investigate

gene expression and regulation.

• Radioactive labeling of RNA or DNA allows scientists to study

gene activity and the impact of various factors on transcription
and translation.

• Examples:

• Tritium (³H): Used to label RNA for studying gene expression

levels in various tissues or conditions.

• Phosphorus-32 (³²P): Used for in vitro transcription experiments

and hybridization techniques to track gene expression.
8. Environmental and Ecological Studies

• Application: Radioisotopes can be used to study the

movement of trace elements in the environment, their uptake
by plants or animals, and the flow of nutrients through
ecosystems.

• Examples:

• Carbon-14 (¹⁴C): Used to study carbon cycling in ecosystems and

to trace the movement of carbon through different trophic levels.

• Sulfur-35 (³⁵S): Used to trace the movement of sulfur in

ecological systems and to study nutrient cycles.
9. Radiation Biology and Dosimetry

• Application: Radioisotopes are used in radiation biology

research to study the effects of ionizing radiation on biological
systems, such as cells and tissues.

• This helps in understanding radiation damage, repair

mechanisms, and the impact on living organisms.

• Examples:

• Cobalt-60 (⁶⁰Co): Used to study the effects of gamma radiation on

cellular DNA and other biomolecules.

• Phosphorus-32 (³²P): Can be used to track DNA damage and repair

after exposure to radiation.
10. Molecular Diagnostics

• Application: Radioisotopes are used in the molecular diagnosis

of diseases by detecting specific biomarkers or mutations.

• Examples:

• Iodine-131 (¹³¹I) and Technetium-99m (⁹⁹mTc): Used in diagnostic

imaging to identify diseases, including cancers, cardiovascular
diseases, and bone disorders.

• Tritium (³H) and Phosphorus-32 (³²P): Used to develop

radiolabeled probes for genetic testing and diagnosing genetic
disorders.
 HEALTH HAZARDS OF RADIATION

• Radiation can pose significant biological hazards to living

organisms, including humans.

• The biological effects of radiation depend on the type, dose,

duration, and energy of the radiation, as well as the biological
tissues and organs exposed.

• Ionizing radiation, which includes alpha particles, beta

particles, gamma rays, and X-rays, has enough energy to
remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, causing damage
to biological molecules and cells.
1. DNA Damage

• Mechanism: Ionizing radiation can cause direct damage to

DNA by breaking the chemical bonds in the DNA structure.
This can lead to mutations, chromosomal fragmentation, or
complete loss of genetic information.

• Consequences: If the damage is not repaired properly, it can

result in mutations that may lead to cancer, genetic disorders,
or cell death. DNA damage is the fundamental cause of many
of the biological effects of radiation.
2. Cancer

• Mechanism: Radiation-induced mutations in DNA can cause

cells to become cancerous. The radiation may directly affect
genes that control cell growth, leading to uncontrolled cell
division (a hallmark of cancer).

• Consequences: Radiation is a proven carcinogen. Prolonged or

high levels of exposure to radiation increase the risk of
developing various cancers, including leukemia, lung cancer,
thyroid cancer, and breast cancer. The risk is greater with
increasing dose and cumulative exposure.
3. Cell Death (Cytotoxicity)

• Mechanism: Radiation can induce the death of cells by

damaging cellular structures, including the cell membrane,
mitochondria, and other organelles. The damage to DNA can
trigger the cell's self-destruction process (apoptosis).

• Consequences: In some cases, the cell dies outright. In tissues

with rapidly dividing cells (such as bone marrow or the lining
of the intestines), radiation-induced cell death can impair
tissue function and lead to organ damage.
4. Radiation Burns (Skin Damage)

• Mechanism: High doses of radiation can cause damage to the

skin, leading to radiation burns. This typically occurs with
external radiation sources such as X-rays, gamma rays, or beta
particles.

• Consequences: Skin burns may appear immediately or

develop over time after significant radiation exposure.
Symptoms include redness, blisters, peeling skin, and tissue
necrosis. Chronic exposure can also increase the risk of skin
cancer.
5. Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS)

• Mechanism: ARS occurs when the whole body is exposed to a

large dose of ionizing radiation in a short period of time (acute
exposure). The severity of ARS depends on the dose of
radiation received.

• Consequences:
• The symptoms of ARS can include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
weakness, hair loss, and a drop in white blood cell count.
• Severe cases can lead to organ failure and death, especially if
the bone marrow is affected (leading to immune system
suppression).
• ARS is a major risk in nuclear accidents or radiological
emergencies.
6. Genetic Effects

• Mechanism:

• Radiation can cause mutations in the germ cells (sperm and eggs),
which can be passed on to future generations.

• This occurs when radiation damages the DNA in these cells,

leading to hereditary mutations.

• Consequences:

• These genetic mutations can result in birth defects, developmental

disorders, or an increased risk of genetic diseases in offspring.

• The effects may not be apparent immediately but can manifest in

future generations.
7. Reproductive Health Effects

• Mechanism:

• Ionizing radiation can damage reproductive organs (ovaries and

testes), leading to infertility or damage to the developing fetus in
pregnant women.

• Consequences:

• In men, radiation exposure can decrease sperm production and

motility, potentially leading to infertility. In women, radiation can
cause ovarian damage, leading to early menopause or infertility.

• Radiation exposure during pregnancy can cause birth defects or

developmental problems in the fetus.
8. Organ-Specific Damage

• Mechanism:

• Different organs and tissues have varying sensitivities to radiation.

• Organs with rapidly dividing cells (such as the bone marrow, gastrointestinal
system, and reproductive organs) are more susceptible to radiation damage.

• Consequences:

Bone Marrow: Radiation can cause bone marrow suppression, leading to a decrease
in red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. This results in anemia, immune
suppression, and bleeding disorders.

Gastrointestinal System: Radiation can damage the lining of the gastrointestinal

tract, leading to nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and, in severe cases, gastrointestinal
bleeding or perforation.

Lungs: Prolonged exposure to high doses of radiation to the lungs (such as in nuclear
accidents or radiotherapy) can lead to fibrosis (scarring of lung tissue), respiratory
issues, or lung cancer.
9. Cataracts

• Mechanism: Exposure to ionizing radiation can damage the

lens of the eye, leading to the formation of cataracts, which
are clouding of the eye's lens.

• Consequences: This can cause vision problems and, in severe

cases, blindness. Cataract formation is a known long-term
effect of radiation exposure, particularly with higher doses or
prolonged exposure.
10. Chronic Health Effects

• Mechanism:

• Chronic low-dose exposure to radiation over extended periods

(such as occupational exposure in nuclear industry workers,
radiologists, or astronauts) can lead to cumulative damage to
tissues and cells.

• Consequences:

• Over time, this can lead to various health problems, including

an increased risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and other
degenerative conditions. Some effects, such as cataracts or
thyroid disorders, may develop many years after exposure.
Safety Measures in Handling
Radioisotopes
1. Training and Education:

• Ensure all personnel are properly trained in radiation safety

procedures.

• Regularly update training to include new safety practices and

regulations.
2. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):

• Gloves: Wear disposable gloves to avoid direct contact.

• Lab Coats: Use radiation-resistant lab coats to protect clothing.

• Safety Goggles/Face Shields: Protect eyes and face, especially

when handling volatile materials.

• Lead Aprons: Wear when working with high-energy radiation.

• Footwear: Closed-toe shoes to prevent contamination.

3. Use of Fume Hoods and Shields:

• Work with volatile isotopes inside fume hoods to contain vapors.

• Radiation shielding: Use appropriate materials like lead to block

harmful radiation.
4. Minimize Exposure Time:

• Reduce the time spent near radioactive sources.

• Keep distance from radiation sources to minimize exposure.

5. Work in Designated Areas:

• Perform all radioactive material handling in controlled, clearly

marked areas.

• Restrict access to authorized personnel only.

6. Containment Systems:

• Store radioactive materials in sealed, shielded containers.

• Use radiation-proof containers for transport and waste

disposal.

7. Radiation Monitoring:

• Use radiation detectors (e.g., Geiger counters) to measure

exposure levels.

• Wear personal dosimeters to monitor cumulative radiation

exposure.
8. Proper Waste Disposal:

• Dispose of radioactive waste in designated, properly labeled

containers.

• Follow regulatory guidelines for radioactive waste

management.

9. Emergency Procedures:

• Have clear plans for handling spills, contamination, and

accidents.

• Decontaminate areas and personnel promptly in case of

exposure.
10. Regulations and Compliance:

• Follow national and international regulations on radiation

safety (e.g., NRC, IAEA).

• Maintain a radiation safety program and conduct regular

safety audits.

11. Hygiene Practices:

• Wash hands thoroughly after handling radioactive materials.

• Avoid eating, drinking, or applying cosmetics in radioactive

areas.