Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

https://doi.org/10.1007/s43994-023-00071-4

REVIEW

Biological treatment solutions using bioreactors for environmental

contaminants from industrial waste water
Preethy Chandran1 · Sneha Suresh1 · Balamuralikrishnan Balasubramain2 · Jaya Gangwar3 · Asha S. Raj1 ·
U. L. Aarathy1 · Arun Meyyazhagan3 · Manikantan Pappuswamy3 · Joseph Kadanthottu Sebastian3

Received: 19 April 2023 / Accepted: 10 July 2023

© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract
Human needs have led to the development of various products which are produced in the industries. These industries in turn
have become a source of various environmental concerns. As industries release regulated and unregulated contaminants into
the water bodies, it has become a serious concern for all living organisms. Various emerging contaminates from industries
like pesticides, pharmaceuticals drugs like hormones, antibiotics, dyes, etc., along with byproducts and new complexes
contaminate the water bodies. Numerous traditional approaches have been utilized for the treatment of these pollutants;
however, these technologies are not efficient in most cases as the contaminants are mixed with complex structures or as new
substances. Advanced technologies such as bioreactor techniques, advanced oxidation processes, and so on have been used
for the treatment of industrial wastewater and have served as an alternative way for wastewater treatment. Overall, biological
treatment techniques based on bioreactors provide a long-term and ecologically useful solution to industrial wastewater con-
tamination. They play an important role in saving water resources and encouraging a greener sustainable future for mankind.
The current review outlines the industrial effluents that are released into water bodies, contaminating them, as well as the
numerous traditional and novel treatment procedures used for industrial wastewater treatment.
Graphical abstract

Keywords Advanced treatment · Bioreactor · Oxidation process · Pollutants · Wastewater

Extended author information available on the last page of the article

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1 Introduction wastes [6]. However, these methods have limitations based

on the complexity of the contaminants and new improved
Emerging contaminants are substances that are infre- methods have to be developed for better treatment process.
quently found in the environment but have the capability to Biological treatment alternatives for environmental toxins
affect both ecological and human health. These substances in industrial wastewater utilizing bioreactors are extremely
can be chemicals, bacteria, or other man-made or natural important for the environment. These revolutionary tech-
components [1]. These modern-day products were not pre- nologies use live microbes to breakdown or eliminate toxins
viously considered to be “contaminants”. These include a in wastewater, providing a long-term solution to the negative
wide range of medicinal substances such as anti-inflam- environmental consequences of industrial activity [7]. Bio-
matory, anti-diabetic, and antiepileptic pharmaceuticals, reactors offer a regulated environment in which microorgan-
prescription medications, industrial chemicals, pesticides, isms may grow and efficiently degrade or change pollutants
personal care items, surfactants, hormones, and endocrine into less dangerous compounds. These methods reduce the
disruptors [2]. discharge of harmful chemicals, heavy metals, and organic
One of the most significant EC categories is the cate- materials that may contaminate water bodies and destroy
gory of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCP). ecosystems by exploiting the force of nature [8].
These are new global contaminants that have lately caught Using bioreactors in water treatment minimizes the need
experts’ attention. These substances have been labelled for chemical-based treatments, hence reducing the develop-
as emerging pollutants due to our poor understanding of ment of toxic byproducts. This strategy encourages environ-
the environmental incidence, disposition, or fate of PPCP mentally beneficial practices and aids in the preservation
compounds and how they affect aquatic and terrestrial eco- of water quality, aquatic life protection, and biodiversity
systems. New contaminants are entering the environment conservation. In addition, bioreactors assist the sustainable
more quickly due to anthropogenic activity and industrial economy by allowing precious resources to be retrieved from
outputs [3]. Public health is concerned about emerging effluent [9]. Anaerobic digestion is a sustainable replace-
poisons, yet despite substantial research being done on ment for conventional fertilizers and fossil fuels that may
the issue globally, no workable solutions have been pro- convert nutrients and organic materials into biofertilizers
posed. Environmental pollution, particularly in the aquatic or biogas [10].
environment, is alarming, according to recent scientific
studies [4]. Pesticides, cosmetics, synthetic colours, and
pharmaceuticals are some of the rising contaminants that 2 Environmental pollutants in industrial
are causing the most worry worldwide (hormones, antibi- wastewater
otics, and other forms of medications). Agricultural food is
protected from pests by using pesticides, but their residues Industrial effluents are a significant problem because they
usually spread well beyond the areas they are intended to are not treated or because there is no treatment method.
treat (including antibiotics and other drugs). One of the main contributors to the pollution of surface and
Heavy metals are naturally present in the planet’s layers. groundwater is these effluents.
On a daily basis, urbanisation and industry are increasing
the amount of heavy metal contamination in the environ- 2.1 Pesticides
ment. Heavy metals come from both natural and man-
made sources that leak into the environment. Industrial Pesticides are lethal to non-target receptors all around the
effluents from a variety of industries, such as electroplat- planet, including humans, and they reach them through the
ing, electrolysis, electro osmosis, mining, waste disposal, food chain. Because of their solid internal connections and
water pipe corrosion, energy and fuel production, pesti- molecular structure, the majority of pesticides are not biode-
cide, iron and steel, leather, metal surface treating, metal gradable [11]. The problem of pesticide poisoning of natu-
surface finishing, aerospace and atomic energy installa- ral streams has spread widely. The diversity of the physical
tions, etc., are primarily to blame for higher metal con- structures of the pesticides, the composition of the influent,
centrations in the environment [5]. However, these cannot and the pH of water tainted with pesticides, which ranges
be completely stopped as they as daily needs for better life from extremely alkaline to highly acidic (0.5), are only a
styles and these industries need significant new methods few of the difficulties that must be overcome when treating
for treatment before they can discharge the waste water. water polluted with pesticides. Furthermore, according to
Many low-cost sorbents have been processed and inves- the literature, between 0.1 and 107 mg/L of pesticides are
tigated for their capacity to bind heavy metals, includ- found in diverse sources of water [12].
ing bacteria, fungi, algae, and lignocellulosic agricultural Human health issues brought on by pesticides include
immune system suppression, hormone disruption,

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decreased IQ, aberrant reproductive processes, and cancer 2.3 Heavy metals

[13]. The most frequent pesticide entry points into surface
and groundwater are associated with intensive agriculture Transition metals, metalloids, lanthanides, and actinides
and include runoff and erosion, leaching, drainage, and with large atomic weights and densities greater than 5 g/
discharges from pesticide producers [14]. The quality of cm3 are classified as heavy metals since they cannot be
surface and groundwater is at risk due to the hazardous broken down. The earth’s crust contains heavy metals, and
organics and insecticide residues that can be found in both anthropogenic and natural sources contribute to their
wastewater from the synthesis processes in the pesticide- release into the environment [26]. As very stable pollut-
producing sectors [15]. Because of their high concentra- ants that are partially non-degradable, heavy metals pen-
tions and recalcitrance in wastewater, pesticide treatment etrate the ecosystem. They are deadly even at low concen-
from water sources is a critical research subject. trations and can enter the human body by processes like
Coagulation/flocculation [16], activated carbon adsorp- ingestion, absorption, and inhalation [27]. They are also
tion [17], and chemical oxidation [18] are a few physical present in soil, water, and the air. Copper (Cu), Chromium
and chemical procedures for pesticide removal. However, (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Manganese (Mn), Arsenic (As), Lead
the use of those technologies generally entails a signifi- (Pb), Mercury (Hg), Zinc (Zn), Nickel (Ni), Molybdenum
cant cost, necessitating the consideration of alternate (Mo), Tin (Sn), Cadmium (Cd), Antimony (Sb), and Iron
possibilities. (Fe) are the principal elements that are classified as heavy
metals [28].
Heavy metal pollution in the environment has devel-
2.2 Synthetic dyes oped into a significant hazard as a result of the increase
in heavy metal input to the environment. Heavy metals
Synthetic dyes are widely employed in many modern tech- cannot be removed like organic contaminants and persist
nological domains, such as the manufacturing of paper, in the ecosystem after accumulating at various points
numerous branches of the textile and leather tanning along the food chain [29]. Effluent samples were taken in
industries, food technology, agricultural research [19]. 2010 by Oguzie and Okhagbuzo from a variety of sources
There is a varied range of structural variety among syn- that were discharged into the Ikpoba River in Benin City.
thetic dyes. The azo, anthraquinone, sulphur, indigo, tri- The effluents and receiving water were examined using
phenylmethyl (trityl), and phthalocyanine derivatives are an atomic absorption spectrophotometric method. It was
the chemical classes of dyes that are used most commonly discovered that Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn were present
on an industrial basis. It must be underlined, nonetheless, in the effluent. Findings demonstrated that higher metal
that azo derivatives make up the vast majority of synthetic concentrations in effluents surpassed the Nigerian Fed-
dyes utilized today in the sector [20]. eral Ministry of Environment’s recommended limits
In the twenty-first century, untreated dyeing effluents for release into surface waters. To find heavy metals,
pose a severe hazard to the environment. Due to dyes’ Ramola and Singh (2013) examined the pharmaceuti-
toxicity, carcinogenic, and/or mutagenic effects on living cal effluents of an industrial region in Dehradun (Utta-
things, their release into the environment is hazardous rakhand), India. The atomic absorption spectrophotom-
[21]. The amounts of BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) eter was used to analyze the metals in the study, which
and COD (chemical oxygen demand) might rise when syn- included Cd (0.16–0.56 mg/L), Cr (0.12–0.31 mg/L),
thetic colours are present in wastewater. Additionally, the Pb (0.158–0.26 mg/L), Ni (0.05–0.12 mg/L), Zn
chromophoric groups greatly absorb sunlight, which inhib- (1–1.3 mg/L), and Cu (0.08–0.38 mg/L). The World
its an organism’s ability to photosynthesize [22]. Synthetic Health Organization’s permitted limit for Cr, Pb, Cd, and
dyes have been shown to negatively affect the growth of Ni was found to be exceeded. Using an atomic absorption
the foetus as well as the oestrous cycle and reproductive spectrophotometer, El-Sayed MH and Helal (2016) exam-
system in rats as well as the biochemical indicators of ined the industrial wastewater from a plastic factory in the
important organs including the liver and kidney [23]. Saudi Arabian province of Hafer Al Baten. The examined
To reduce the environmental effect of synthetic dyes, effluent showed greater levels of all metals measured, with
a range of strategies for removing them from water and Pb, Cd, As, and Cr identified at 12.56 mg/L, 23.90 mg/L,
wastewater have been developed. The technologies include 24.12 mg/L, and 28.23 mg/L, each. Thus, from the above
chemical precipitation, chemical oxidation, adsorption, results it’s evident that heavy metal contamination is
decolorization by photocatalysis and/or oxidation pro- reported worldwide. Heavy metals and trace elements are
cesses [20, 21], microbiological or enzymatic degradation, used as terminal electron acceptors by microbes to obtain
and so on [24, 25]. the energy needed to detoxify metals via enzymatic and
non-enzymatic processes [30].

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2.4 Pharmaceutical drugs include immune system suppression, hormone disruption,

decreased IQ, aberrant reproductive processes, and cancer
Prescription drugs are compounds that, even in very small [37]. Pesticides enter surface and groundwater via the most
amounts, have a healing impact on the body [31]. The years prevalent entry points, which are associated with intensive
1945 to 1960 are recognized as the “golden era” of antibiotic agriculture and include erosion, runoff discharge, and drain-
discovery. Prior to focusing on natural compounds, early age from pesticide manufacturing plants [32]. The diversity
research was centered on the manufacture of small pharma- of the physical structures of the pesticides, the composition
ceuticals. With the discovery of generally safe medications of the influent, and the pH of water tainted with pesticides,
made from environmental bacteria and fungi, the golden age which ranges from extremely alkaline to highly acidic (0.5),
of antibiotics officially began. These discoveries ushered in are only a few of the difficulties that must be overcome when
the “golden age” of antibiotic study (1945–1960). Antibi- treating water polluted with pesticides [38].
otics were widely used in medicine from 1970 to 1980, a
period regarded as the “golden age of antibacterial medicinal 2.6 Petrochemical wastes
chemistry” [32].
Antibiotics have been designated as emerging pollutants Petrochemical waste is a byproduct of the oil industry.
due to their extensive use, continued ingestion, and persis- Before being released into water bodies, wastewater must
tence in numerous environmental domains even at low lev- be properly treated because it contains a variety of organic
els. In India, fluoroquinolones, broad-spectrum penicillin, and inorganic components. Oilfield production, crude oil
and cephalosporins are the top three treatment classes. Ceph- refineries, olefins plants, energy facilities, refrigeration, and
alosporins’ bactericidal properties and wide anti-bacterial other sporadic effluent sources are just a few of the sources
spectrum resulted in increased clinical use and economic of petrochemical wastewater [39, 40]. During the extraction
production [33]. The original parent forms of antibiotic of crude oil from oil wells containing substantial volumes of
residues do not exist in the environment. They can be trans- synthetic surfactants and crude oil that have been emulsified
formed into different metabolites by the action of bacteria as but have a low COD and biodegradability, wastewater from
well as by physical or chemical mechanisms. Many drugs are the oil field is released [41]. It is produced during oil extrac-
utilized for both human and veterinary purposes, hence they tion and comprises complex, robust organic contaminants
will be found in the environment as multicomponent chemi- such as humus, polymer, phenols, radioactive compounds,
cal mixtures [34]. There are no regulations governing anti- benzenes, and various types of heavy mineral oil [38, 39].
biotic tolerance or environmental concentration limitations. Petrochemical effluents having harmful contaminants is
Municipal wastewater often has lower concentrations than stabilized and organics are removed with the use of vari-
hospital effluents, which typically have higher amounts. Var- ous bacteria. Owing to their affordability and efficiency in
iable concentration ranges exist in various surface waters, removing pollutants, biological treatments are now receiving
groundwaters, and oceans. Many nations have varying laws. more attention as a result of strict environmental regulations
Concentration limits have not been established for any of and water recycling for reuse [42]. Biological treatment to
the antibiotics that are found in every food item and every remove pollutants still faces difficulties due to the complex-
species that generate food. So, from an environmental stand- ity of petrochemical effluent, despite its enormous potential
point, controlling veterinary drug residues is essential [34]. [43]. It is well known that the complex structures of poly-
Each year, China adds approximately 8000 tons of antibiot- cyclic, aromatic, along with heterocyclic ringed compounds
ics to water and feed to aid in the development of animals, inhibit biological decomposition [44]. Recent research ini-
yet there are currently no official regulations in place [35]. tiatives have, however, led to considerable reductions in the
Antibiotics are not restricted by the current environmental contaminants present in petrochemical effluent [45]. Since
water quality standards in Europe since they demand evi- this wastewater from petrochemical companies includes a
dence of their widespread environmental degradation and broad range of chemicals, the methodologies often used to
risk [36]. treat it depend on and are customized according to the source
of the wastewater, the specifications for discharge, and the
2.5 Organic and inorganic chemicals potency of the treatment. Due to being directed to a bio-
logical function for organic treatment, pretreatment methods
Pesticides poison non-target receptors throughout, includ- are normally used in the treatment of effluent in petroleum
ing people, and they reach them through the food chain. refineries. Primary treatments include enhancing wastewa-
Most pesticides are not biodegradable due to their strong ter biodegradability, removing free oil and gross solids, and
molecular linkages and internal connections [19]. The prob- removing dispersed oil and solids using flocculation, flota-
lem of pesticide poisoning of natural streams has spread tion, sedimentation, filtering, micro electrolysis, and other
widely. Human health issues brought on by pesticides methods [19].

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Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

3 Hazardous effects of environmental exposure. These include root shortening, leaf scorch, chlo-
pollutants rosis, nutritional insufficiency, and increased insect attack
sensitivity [49]. Treated Tannery Wastewater severely
Industrial wastes seriously harm the ecosystem by con- harms fish and other aquatic creatures. The genotoxicity
taminating the air, water, and soil. Depending on the enter- and mutagenicity of Tannery Wastewater contaminated
prise, the quantity and quality of wastewater produced can water create significant harmful consequences for fish and
range from biodegradable materials like paper, leather, other aquatic species.
and wool to non-biodegradable trash like heavy metals, Chromium toxicity is mainly determined by chemical
pesticides, and plastic. Industrial effluent may be poison- speciation; hence, the related health consequences are regu-
ous, flammable, reactive, or cancer-causing. Consequently, lated by the chemical forms of exposure [65]. Inorganic lead
waste discharge into bodies of water can have disastrous compounds and elemental lead can enter the body via the
consequences for the ecosystem and human health if not digestive and respiratory systems. The abundance of lead in
treated and managed properly. Numerous waterborne path- the environment influences its toxicity. Organic lead com-
ogens grow in wastewater and release toxins that impact pounds can reach the brain through the skin and cause a neu-
human health and the planet’s environment [46] (Table 1). rotoxin. Arsenic can harm the skin, liver, kidneys, and lungs.
More than 3000 molecules have already been certified Arsenic has been linked to cancer, metabolic syndrome, and
by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as certain other metabolic illnesses. Cadmium can impair glycolysis in
food additives to thicken, colour, or preserve food. Due the liver and muscles by inhibiting fructose kinase phos-
to the discovery of unforeseen adverse effects, many of phate activity. It also boosts the activity of numerous other
these additives are prohibited. Food and additive adul- enzymes involved in amino acid breakdown metabolism,
teration can occasionally lead to potential health hazards including amino acid oxidase, glutamate dehydrogenase, and
like hyperkinesis, tumors, renal damage, skin rashes, glutamate dehydrogenase. Nickel stimulates the creation of
migraine, asthma, sleep disruption, and gastrointestinal ROS and boosts the activity of antioxidant enzymes via the
distress [62]. Depolarization of the mitochondrial mem- Fenton reaction. Excess nickel can also cause the genera-
brane was yet another early impact of food coloring action tion of free radicals and ROS by direct transfer of electrons,
in the cell types studied. The colorants may increase the which inhibits the activity of enzymes in antioxidant defense
amount of ROS in the cell lines examined, causing mito- mechanisms. Mercury is a primary cause of autoimmune ill-
chondrial damage. The effect of colorant concentration nesses, and antinuclear antibodies created by those exposed
on ROS production in UV-exposed mouse fibroblast cells to inorganic mercury also cause Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s
was examined. Following UV irradiation, ROS produc- disease. As a result, all forms of mercury are highly hazard-
tion was significantly increased in cases of higher con- ous to the central nervous and digestive systems [47].
centrations of the tested colorants However, without irra- Recent research has shown that pharmaceutical residues
diance treatment, only Unicert Red K 7008-J produced from a variety of therapeutic classes, including antibiotics,
significantly more ROS [63]. Painters face a greater risk analgesics, anticancer drugs, contraceptives, and antidepres-
of adverse health effects due to their exposure to highly sants, clearly harm the environment. Pharmaceuticals, in
Volatile organic compound concentrations (ethylbenzene contrast to the majority of other chemicals that are released
and 1,2-dichloropropane). However, the harmful compo- into the environment, are meant to affect physiological pro-
nents in the coating environment have not been thoroughly cesses. Particularly, pharmaceuticals are designed to have
recognized, which results in Short-term exposure to high an impact on people and have a high potential to become
levels of volatile organic compounds that can induce eye, bioactive to wildlife [32]. A single medicine can be pre-
nose, throat, and lung irritation, as well as liver, kidney, sent in levels that have just marginally noticeable effects.
and central nervous system damage. Long-term exposure Low amounts of medication exposure over a long period
to even low concentrations can cause asthma, decreased are unlikely to have an immediate negative impact, but they
respiratory function, cardiovascular illness, and severe may have subtle effects on reproductive function, especially
malignancies [64]. in aquatic species. Cell death or apoptosis, cancer-causing
Heavy metal content in the environment has far- DNA mutations, and disruption of biochemical signaling
reaching consequences for animals, plants, and micro- pathways all contribute to cellular proliferation. All water-
biological organisms. Human exposure to several metals, ways are contaminated with oestrogens and oestrogen-like
for example, produces problems and symptoms such as chemicals, which are harmful and to have endocrine-disrupt-
hypophosphatemia, heart disease, liver damage, cancer, ing effects. These pollutants may also have an impact on the
and neurological issues. Most morphological and muta- development, reproduction, and growth of marine life [66].
tional alterations identified in plants are caused by metal All rivers are contaminated by estrogens and oestrogen-
like compounds because of their toxicity and endocrine

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Table 1  Harmful effects of pollutants on human beings

Pollutant class Groups included Harmful effect The specific site of action References

Dyes Sufur Drugs Urinary tract disorders, hemat- – [13]

opoietic disorders, porphyria,
and hypersensitivity reactions
Azo dyes Reduction in human intestinal Human liver azoreductase
microflora, skin microflora
Azure-B Inhibition in cellular redox Glutathione reductase [22]
homeostasis
Disperse Red 1 Inhibition of DNA damage repair Formation of DNA adducts
Sudan I dye Neoplastic liver nodules –
Basic Red 9 Allergic dermatitis, skin irrita- –
tion, mutations, and cancer
Crystal Violet Chemical cystitis, irritation of –
the skin and digestive tract, res-
piratory and renal failure
Heavy metals Lead Inhibit mitochondrial oxidative δ-aminolevulinic [47]
phosphorylation
Arsenic Inhibition of DNA methylation α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
Cadmium Inhibition of DNA damage repair Glutathione reductase and super-
oxide dismutase
Nickel Inhibition of antioxidant defense Glutathione reductase
systems
Mercury Glycolysis and hexose-phosphate Hexokinase and pyruvate kinase
lysis pathway
Flouride Dental and skeletal fluorosis, – [48]
gastrointestinal disorders,
infertility, kidney impairment
Nitrate Methemoglobinemia in infants, –
oral and gastrointestinal
cancers
Broad-spectrum biocides Chlorophenols Multiple inhibiting actions Phophosphorylation, protein [2, 49]
synthesis, lipid biosynthesis
Tributyl tins, trialkyl tins Respiratory system inhibition Mitochondrial ATPase
Organic and inorganic Carbamates Nervous system inhibition Acetylcholinesterase
chemicals- Organophos-
phates
Organochlorines Cyclodienes Nervous system inhibition GABA receptor
Herbicides Ureas, cyclic ureas, triazines, Photosynthesis inhibition Hill reaction of electron trans-
acylanilides, phenylcarbamates, port
triazinones
Bipyridiniums Photosynthesis inhibition (light Reducing the side of photosys-
reaction) tem I
Pyridazinones Biosynthesis inhibition Carotene accumulation
Chloroacetamide Biosynthesis inhibition Fatty acid synthesis
Dinitroanilines, phosphoric Biosynthesis inhibition Microtubule formation
amides, chlorthaldimethyl,
propy-zamide, colchicine,
terbutol
Organophosphates Piperonyl butoxide Esterase inhibitor – [50]
Diazinon Genotoxicity –
benomyl Genotoxicity –
Pyrethroids Cypermethrin Skin rashes, respiratory problems – [51]
Deltamethrin Allergic reactions – [52]
Triazines Atrazine Hormone issues, reproductive – [53]
complications, and develop-
mental anomalies

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Table 1  (continued)
Pollutant class Groups included Harmful effect The specific site of action References

Chloroacetanilides Acetochlor Liver and kidney damage – [54]

Organochlorine Lindane Reproductive complications – [55]
Endosulfan weakens the immune systems – [56]
Glyphosate Glyphosate Cancer, endocrine disturbance – [57]
Imidazolinones Imazapyr Enter aquatic life due to – [58]
Imazethapyr improper disposal – [59]
Phenoxy acid herbicides 2,4-d-MCPA Hormone disturbance and – [60]
Mecoprop adverse reproductive effects – [61]

disruptor effects. Superbugs, or germs that are resistant to antibiotics can remain active for 1 to 3466 days. The most
several antibiotics, are currently one of the most difficult prevalent zoonotic infections to be detected in the environ-
issues facing contemporary medicine. Pathogens and oppor- ment are ARBs. The host immune system, as well as anti-
tunistic pathogens are two different classifications that are microbial medications, exert substantial selection pressure
involved in superbugs. The natural commensal flora of the on the bacteria because of their shorter growth times [68].
same genus and species that live on humans makes up the Phenotypic antibiotic resistance (PAR) is the non-heritable
first class of diseases. Over time, they developed virulent and transitory capacity of bacteria to resist antibiotics. It
traits and genes for antibiotic resistance. Examples of this is distinguished by drug indifference, persistence, biofilm
type of bacteria include drug-resistant Escherichia coli, formation, decreased antibiotic permeability, or increased
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and efflux [69].
vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). The second cat- Numerous studies have demonstrated that some antimi-
egory of opportunistic infections is so named because they crobial chemicals, particularly polar ones, are not eliminated
commonly have environmental origins and typically only by the techniques used to clean wastewater. It is crucial to
infect patients who are predisposed to infection. They natu- ascertain how they break down and to assess how they will
rally withstand a variety of antibiotics. fare in the environment. The breakdown of antibiotics has
received less attention in studies than the detection of parent
chemicals (Table 2). One of the causes could be the absence
4 Challenges with wastewater treatment of standards suitable for commercial use [70]. Ordinar-
ily, environmental concentrations to which organisms are
The biological treatment process at a traditional wastewa- exposed are lower (for instance, 100 g kg1 in soil). This
ter treatment facility may produce a selective increase in is the main obstacle to creating the recommendations for
the population of antibiotic-resistant bacteria as well as an screening these pollutants [71]. These substances can have
increase in the prevalence of multidrug-resistant bacteria negative health effects at lower doses. A serious issue is the
[67]. The “One Health” approach to understanding the absence of legal framework for disposal and return to the
sharing and management of etiological agents with their agency in question. Unused and expired medications should
influence on the ecosystem has emerged in the current be disposed of properly to reduce the risk of contamination
landscape of communicable illnesses. This situation raises in marine systems [72]. The removal of pesticides using tra-
serious concerns about the relevance of zoonotic illnesses ditional wastewater treatment methods is ineffective. Over
[68]. In this setting, the gut serves as a bioreactor for the the last few years, substantial advancements have been made
breeding of ARBs, which are then continuously discharged in their application in wastewater treatment. The majority
in various niches. These ARBs use quorum sensing, hori- of treatment techniques are biologically based, followed by
zontal gene transfer, and vectors to spread resistance genes some physical or chemical methods (Table 2).
among the local flora. The well-known zoonotic diseases Even though biofilm bioreactors generate desirable
include hemorrhagic colitis caused by Escherichia coli, products with high productivity, operating them has some
brucellosis caused by Brucella abortus, and anthrax caused constraints. Excessive sloughing of Extracellular polymeric
by Bacillus anthracis. Similar to antibiotics, most antibi- substances (EPS) complicates downstream processing and
otics are not fully metabolized before being released into product purification. Improper thick biofilm layer formation
the environment. These unmetabolized forms penetrate might hinder processes if mixing is not optimized, reducing
the food chain and have an impact on different ecologi- reactor efficiency. The variability in physiological state and
cal niches through bioaccumulation. In the environment, limitations inside the mature biofilm leads to a concentration

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Table 2  Common pollutants degraded by using various wastewater treatment methods

Pollutants Class Method References

Ampicillin Antibiotics Electroactive Shewanella putrefaciens [76]

Cefotaxime Electrocatalytic oxidation [77]
Erythromycin Radiation coupled with peroxymonosulfate oxidation [78]
Ciprofloxacin Ozonation with calcium peroxide [79]
Disperse Red 1 Dyes Flocculation-sludge based flocculants [80]
Sudan I dye Fenton oxidation [81]
Basic Red 9 Biosorption [82]
Crystal Violet Thermally activated peroxide oxidation [83]
Lead Heavy metals electrocoagulation [84]
Arsenic Adsorption- biochar-based sorbents [85]
Cadmium Iron–electrocoagulation [86]
Nickel Electrocoagulation with zinc electrodes [87]
Copper Membrane Bioreactor [88]
Zinc Biofilm-based bioreactor [89]
Mercury Ion-exchange membrane bioreactor [90]
Chromium Osmotic membrane bioreactor [91]
Aluminium Membrane bioreactor-Coagulation [92]
Iron Membrane Bioreactor [88]
Chloroacetamide Herbicide Ozonation [93]
Dinitroaniline membrane-aerated biofilm reactor [94]
Diazinon Pesticide Sequencing batch moving-bed biofilm reactor [95]
Atrazine Denitrifying bioreactor [96]
Atrazine—Metolachlor Multichannel biofilm reactor [97]
Lindane Slurry bioreactors [98]
Endosulfan Fermenter bioreactor system [99]
Chlorpyrifos Membrane bioreactor [100]
Carbaryl Horizontal tubular bioreactor [101]
Phenols Organic chemicals Membrane bioreactor [102]
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Membrane bioreactor [103]
Volatile organic compounds Trickle-bed bioreactor [104]
Polyaromantic compounds (e.g., bisphe- Activated sludge and membrane bioreactor system [105]
nol A, phthalates)
Nonylphenol ethoxylates Membrane bioreactor [106]
Nitrate and nitrite Inorganic chemicals Single-Stage Bioreactor [107]
Ammonia Anaerobic membrane bioreactor [108]
Phosphates Oxidation ditch-membrane bioreactor [109]
Fluoride PVDF mixed matrix membranes [110]
Cyanides Bioreactors [111]

Fig. 1  Conventional methods of

treatment of waste water

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Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

gradient of substrate take-up and waste compounds within dioxide and water. Sludge activated anaerobically or aerobi-
the biofilm [73] (Fig. 1). cally can be used in the process. The benefits of an anaerobic
process include minimal energy usage and the ability to gen-
erate energy [114]. Salt concentration significantly impacts
5 Conventional biological treatment the structure and microorganisms of activated sludge in
technologies the biological treatment of saline wastewater [115]. Pro-
teobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Acidobacteria, Firmicutes, and
Conventional treatment technologies are frequently nature- Nitrospirae were the most prominent phyla in the samples,
based, less mechanical, and suitable for any geographical according to the community structure study. The dominat-
environment. Several significant biological traditional treat- ing phylum was comparable in each sample, although the
ment systems have emerged throughout time and are now percentage varied by operational unit [116].
widely employed for removing contaminants in wastewater
from diverse sources [74].
5.2 Oxidation ponds
5.1 Activated sludge
Waste stabilization ponds are excellent for tropical waste-
Conventional activated sludge treatments typically remove water treatment. Waste stabilization ponds are an option
or reduce pathogen concentrations and bulk organic loads. for wastewater treatment in regions where the climate is
However, they generally do not intend to eliminate trace favorable, and land is accessible. Because of their unique
organic substances. The ability to eradicate micropollutants features, such as ease of operation, low energy input, and
in the treatment process is determined by several elements, low maintenance, wastewater stabilization ponds are cost-
including the physicochemical qualities of the specific com- effective alternatives to traditional wastewater treatment
ponent and the technology and process conditions [75]. methods. Due to their claimed high pathogen removal effi-
Due to the harmful cation impact on biomass in waste- ciency, wastewater stabilization ponds have become a popu-
water with high metal concentrations, biological wastewater lar wastewater treatment alternative, particularly in tertiary
treatment is inefficient. Metal toxicity is negatively related lagoons [21].
to microbial biomass growth and treatment efficacy. Copper, Using Maturation Oxidation Ponds as a post-treatment
zinc, and nickel were examined for their harmful effects in system should be a viable alternative for home sewage treat-
an activated sludge system, and it was observed that nitrifiers ment. Fundamental sewage issues were already adequately
were more susceptible to these metals than heterotrophic addressed in most industrialized countries. Technology and
bacteria. The metal accumulation potential of biomass was laws were fine-tuned for managing and eliminating micropo-
most significant in the copper scenario, and the presence of llutants and other diseases and evaluating the consequences
heavy metals was found to diminish microbial diversity rich- of pollutants in sensitive regions. The Maturation Oxida-
ness in activated sludge systems. The impact of copper and tion Pond is a primary scientifically built pond with a depth
zinc on biomass, both independently and together, revealed of 2–6 feet, where BOD reduction of wastewater occurs
that copper was more harmful than zinc [112]. by encouraging algal–bacterial development. Maturation
The most popular biological wastewater treatment tech- Oxidation Ponds are shallow manufactured basins that use
nique for pollutants containing carbon and nitrogen is acti- natural processes under partly regulated conditions to reduce
vated sludge. The eutrophication of aquatic organisms is organic matter and destroy harmful organisms in wastewater.
facilitated by conventional sewage treatment, which results Domestic and industrial wastewater contains roughly 99%
in considerable ammonia and nitrogen levels in landfill lea- liquid waste and less than 1% solid waste. Cleansers, black
chate. Despite applying biochemical treatments to lower water, grey water, toilet paper, and detergents make up most
ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations to acceptable levels, of these wastes. Showers, bathtubs, toilets, kitchens, and
nitrite concentrations in leachate can remain high. Nitro- sinks drain into sewers are examples of liquid waste. Domes-
gen removal is often accomplished by alternately switching tic wastewater in many locations also comprises liquid waste
between hypoxic and anaerobic environments or by estab- from business establishments [117].
lishing distinct zones with acceptable conditions for nitrifi- Algal processes that have been essential in solar-powered
cation and denitrification, respectively. High rates of sequen- agitation will still be required. The separation of suspended
tial denitrification and nitrification may also be obtained in algae in WSPs remains a considerable problem, nonetheless,
activated sludge and biofilm systems under operational set- to prevent effluent degradation. In the case of high algal rate
tings that include both hypoxic and anaerobic microenviron- ponds, more research is required to increase algal growth
ments [113]. Activated sludge technologies may eliminate yield, choose suitable strains, and enhance harvesting tech-
it by converting biodegradable organic material into carbon niques in order to algal biomass production [118].

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5.3 Trickling filters to vent the cleaned air. The most common biofilter used to
treat air from livestock facilities is an open-bed biofilter.
A trickling filter is an intriguing biological wastewater Most open-bed biofilters can be covered with roofs to pro-
treatment method. The microbial population in the trickling vide weather protection. For reducing odors and gaseous
filters lives on the rock/plastic package in this biological emissions from mechanically ventilated livestock facilities
mechanism of attachment growth. It comprises microor- and manure storage facilities, biofilters are a tried-and-true
ganisms that biodegrade the substrates to eliminate them solution. In order for microorganisms to break down hazard-
from the wastewater. Aerobic and facultative bacteria, fungi, ous gases into carbon dioxide, water, and salts and use the
algae, and protozoans comprise the microbial community. energy and nutrients for growth and reproduction, they need
The aerobic zone of the biofilm is influenced by an organic to be absorbed into a biofilm, which is how biofilters work.
substrate, oxygen supply, temperature, ventilation, wastewa- The filters employed for ozonated wastewater post-treatment
ter pH, and filter media specifications such as size, depth, demonstrated unique removal tendencies for micropollut-
weight, surface area, and relative density, among others. As ants. The different filtering systems lowered the concentra-
a result, media selection is an important part of improving tions of chemicals previously reduced by ozonation to values
the performance efficiency of a trickling filter [119]. Bacte- in the region of the limit of quantification. Sulfamethoxa-
riophages are naturally occurring bacteria predators that are zole, erythromycin, caffeine, and 2-hydroxy ibuprofen are
particular and exact in their predation activities and highly among the chemicals removed, and their elimination may
selective to fecal contamination. Because of their predatory be attributed to biodegradation [123].
strength and the fact that they are not pathogenic or danger- The microalgal biomass was produced in sufficient quan-
ous to humans, phages play a significant role in wastewater tities during the processing of municipal wastewater treat-
treatment operations. Predation is the primary pathogen ment plant effluent, with the added benefit of decreasing
elimination strategy in artificial wetlands [120]. phosphate and nitrogen loading by 70–80% within 4 days.
The ability of biological trickling filters to remove BOD Dried biomass was very effective in batch testing at remov-
and a more straightforward model to describe it. At two tem- ing copper (80%) and cadmium (100%) ions from metal
perature ranges of 5–15 °C and 25–35 °C, a trickling filter waste, with the maximum removal rate achieved within
with four different media—rubber, polystyrene, plastic, and 5 min of contact time [124]. Microalgal biofiltration allows
stone—was assessed. At temperature ranges of 5–15 and water recirculation, lowering pumping costs and increasing
25–35 °C, the average clearance of chemical oxygen con- resilience to external forces. Furthermore, harvesting aids
sumption and BOD was greater than 80 and 90%, respec- such as periphyton, microalgal-bacterial consortiums, and
tively. At low temperatures ranging from 5 to 15 °C, the immobilized microalgae can minimize operational expenses
geometric mean of coliform bacteria in trickling filters [125].
using polystyrene, plastic, rubber, and stone as the filter
medium decreased by 4.3, 4.0, 5.8, and 5.4 log10, respec-
tively. At a better temperature range of 25–35 °C, the fecal 6 Recent advancements in wastewater
coliform count was reduced by 3.97, 5.34, 5.36, and 4.37 treatment
log10, respectively, from polystyrene, plastic, rubber, and
stone [121]. Many different species have been employed to 6.1 Bioreactors for water treatment
remediate odour effluents biologically. For H2S removal,
microorganisms such as Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans, Thio- A biologically active environment is carried by bioreac-
bacillus thioparus, and Thiobacillus denitrificans have been tors, which are employed in industry to treat effluents. To
utilized. All of these microbes are bacterium species. Fungi improve productivity, procedure consistency, and minimize
were utilized in a bio-trickling filter for hydrophobic organic manufacturing costs, enterprises use biofilm reactors [126].
compounds. However, there have been few investigations The biofilm system uses microbial consortia of biofilms to
on inoculating fungus into trickling filters to remove hydro- remediate heavy metals while immobilizing microbes in a
philic contaminants such as ­H2S [122]. self-synthesized matrix. As a result, bacteria are protected
against stress, toxins, and protozoan predators. Industries
5.4 Biofilters employ biofilm-based decontamination to clean up polluted
groundwater and soil [127]. A bioreactor is classifiable as
Biofilters are classified according to their architecture. batch, continuous, semi-continuous, or fed-batch accord-
Biofilters can be either open-bed or closed-bed. Open-bed ing to how culture and media are fed into it throughout the
biofilter medium is subjected to weather variables such as fermentation process. Slurry reactors are used to ex-situ
rainfall, snowfall, and temperature changes. Closed-bed bio- treat contaminated soil or water [128]. Contaminated mate-
filters are mostly sealed, with only a small exhaust aperture rial is processed through a specially designed containment

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Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

device. Both continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) and fluid density between the raised zone and the down comer
conventional batch-stirred tank reactors (STRs) have been increases the flow of liquid significantly. However, it has
around for a while and continue to be used in the chemical been demonstrated that the kinetic energy of the ascending
and bioprocessing industries [53, 92] (Fig. 2). bubbles is insufficient to propel the reactor’s flow [67].

6.1.1 Airlift reactors (ALRs) 6.1.2 Fluidized bed reactor (FBR)

ALRs have a wide range of applications in chemical pro- As in a tubular reactor, fluid travels through the vessel of the
cesses such as desulfurization, hydrogenation, Fisher- bioreactor. Chemical and variable change are governed by
Tropsch synthesis (FTS), coal liquefaction, cell culture, and positional functions rather than temporal ones. For any given
biological fermentation. Simple fabrication, evident mixing, cross-section of the tube, the reaction time for each segment
and loaded transport with low energy input are examples of of material flowing is constant, and fluids in a perfect tubular
these features. It also uses fluidized bed techniques to purify reactor flow as if they were pistons or solid plugs. The fluid-
wastewater, reduce volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ized bed method, also known as the suspended carrier bio-
generate ozone, and apply Fenton catalytic oxidation [129]. film method, which uses solid particle fluidization technol-
The raised portion of the down comer, the bottom clear- ogy, may keep the entire system fluidized to promote solid
ance, and the top of the gas separator are the three functional particle interaction with liquid and to achieve the cleaning
components of a typical ALR. ALR is divided into two types principle. The number of living cells in the biofilms and the
based on where the gas sparger is located: up-flow ALR and liquid phase surrounding the support medium was used to
down-flow ALR. The most common design, up-flow ALR, assess microorganism development in FBR [3]. The number
draws gas from the reactor’s base. Because gas sparging is of viable cells inside the reactor grows as more organic loads
configured at the reactor’s higher half, a liquid flow inside are eliminated. An increase in active biomass most likely
this down-flow ALR permits the liquid state to inflow from contributed to a greater degree of breakdown of the high
the reactor’s top. Fluid circulation was predominantly driven organic load in the wastewater. The treatment capacity is
by the dynamics of the liquid stream, resulting in sufficiently more than 1020 times that of the traditional activated sludge
high energy demand for the down-flow ALR. The kinetic technique [72].
energy of rising bubbles and the fluctuation of hydrostatic
pressure in a steady phase are the primary sources of motor 6.1.3 Packed bed reactor (PBR)
power for the classic airlift reactor. The unequal gas dis-
tribution on the riser and down comer causes hydrostatic This is a simple-to-build and maintain tubular reactor sup-
pressure divergence. The gas concentration in the riser is plied with biomass or microbial pellets. Another metabolic
frequently higher than in the down comer. The difference in activity is going on the microbial biomass’s surface. Close

Fig. 2  General outline for the

water treatment using bioreactor
systems

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 Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

to the bottom is a screen and a metal support grid to help phase, the mechanical stirrer generally stirs the liquids.
support the microbial pellets [72]. Long-term operation reactors linked to mature anaerobic
granular sludge have specialized capacity for COD, TP, and
6.1.4 Moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) nitrogen removal [3].

While loading, concentrations, and pH levels vary signifi-

6.1.8 Membrane distillation bioreactor
cantly, MBBRs are more capable and stable for harmful
chemical and nutrient excretion [130]. This technique is
The first membrane distillation patent was acquired in 1963.
effective at removing contaminants that are only marginally
Membrane distillation bioreactors use ultra- or micro-fil-
biodegradable as well as hazardous pollutants like phenolic
tration membranes to remove suspended particles from the
volatile aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, and chlorinated
treated effluent. Unfortunately, the ultra-filtration or micro-
solutions [131]. Its key advantage is its capacity to condense
filtration method falls short when it comes to organic sol-
suspended and biofilm biomass into a single usable unit
vents that have undergone biodegradation. Thus, the organic
while allowing for a significantly higher biomass density
content of the permeate stream rises [135]. Membrane distil-
in the system [78]. The MBBR presented an alternative to
lation bioreactors have a lower flow rate at atmospheric pres-
conventional activated sludge for the treatment of industrial
sure in the range of 2–5 LMH but a higher permeate quality
wastewater because it exhibited all of the properties of a
than traditional membrane bioreactors. Many investigations
typical biofilm reactor and allowed for the integrated man-
have combined membrane distillation with a photocatalysis
agement of massive particle masses [132].
approach for the breakdown of organic pollutants in aqueous
solutions, with no obvious decline in the permeation flow of
6.1.5 Membrane bioreactor
the membrane distillation [18].
These semi-permeable membrane suspended growth biore-
actors are employed in treatment processes along with mem- 6.1.9 Dynamic membrane bioreactor (DM)
brane techniques like microfiltration and ultrafiltration [133].
A membrane can be used to concentrate or retain compo- The dynamic membrane outperforms the conventional mem-
nents depending on their relative size or electrical charge brane in terms of aerobic and anaerobic digestion, filtration
(permeate). There are numerous membrane configurations capacities, simplicity of backwashing, in situ reformation,
used, including pleated filter cartridges, hollow fiber, spiral and financial feasibility. The importance of dynamic mem-
wrapped, tubular, and frames [72]. branes in aerobic or anaerobic systems has grown as a result
of the production of high-quality effluent with reduced abso-
6.1.6 Continuous stirred tank bioreactor (CSTR) lute solids, improved operational stability, and treatment of
industrial wastewater under difficult conditions [136]. The
The CSTR operates in opposition to well-stirred batches reactor operation was unstable and unsuccessful due to a
and tubular plug flow reactors. A tank with a fixed volume variety of constraints, including a lengthy method that takes
and a stirring system are both present in CSTRs to mix the a lot of energy for pumping and membrane fouling from
reactants. There are feed and exit pipelines for adding and high-layer cake production. To overcome these challenges,
removing reactant and product, respectively. Agitators are the DM employs a cake layer membrane as its filtration
the stirring blades used in CSTRs to combine the reactants mechanism. Pre-coated and self-forming membranes are
[134]. split into two categories based on the substance that devel-
ops on the membrane in this reactor. The externally coated,
6.1.7 Sequencing batch reactors porous material that makes up the pre-coated dynamic mem-
brane is meant to resemble powdered activated carbon. On
The fill-and-draw concept of activated sludge technology the other hand, self-forming dynamic membranes (SFDM)
is how sequencing biofilm batch reactors work. It operates don’t require a substance to function because they are con-
primarily as a batch reactor and follows a set of procedures structed from substances found in the liquid that are com-
known as the sequencing batch reactors technique. In this parable to the suspended particles that need to be filtered.
system, the sequencing biofilm batch reactors are four equal The impregnated layer is crucial in minimizing the size of
column-type aerobic granular sludge reactors with a work- the filtration hole and reducing the fouling of the supporting
ing volume of 6.16 l, an inner diameter of 0.14 m, a total and pre-coated membranes during the dynamic membrane
height of 0.4 m, a water input, an outflow pipe, and a sludge growth process. The interaction between the impregnated
discharge port. Air bubbles are released by a dispenser at layer and the supporting components influences the optimi-
the reactor’s base. During the anaerobic or aerobic reaction zation of the dynamic membrane production process [137].

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Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

6.1.10 Aerated membrane bioreactor (AMBR) newer PB prototype was produced, notably a soft-frame and
hybrid PB, which increased its power and plasticity [108,
These bioreactors are indeed a technique that combines an 144]. To maximize the elimination of pollutants and boost
aerated bioreactor with a membrane. Because it contains biomass output, the conformations are continuously modi-
microorganisms linked to nitrifying and denitrifying, a fied [145].
membrane bioreactor can achieve complete dissociation
between solids and liquids and improve N removal. When 6.2 Bioreactors in metal removal
it comes to the elimination of both organic compounds and
contaminants, this is an advanced approach than membrane A bacterial consortium was formed from the surface water
bioreactor and aerated bioreactor. Aerated membrane bio- of Mexico’s heavily copper-contaminated San Pedro River
reactors have been shown to effectively achieve nitrification [146]. Ascending flow aerobic bioreactor packed with zeo-
and denitrification without the need for an additional tank lite inoculated with bacterial consortium was used for con-
and to reduce the production of excess biological sludge as tinuous biosorption assay studies for 133 days. Continuous
a result of having a shorter aeration period than membrane biosorption tests were performed with 50 mg ­Cu2+/L with-
bioreactors [138]. out biomass recirculation, 20 mg C ­ u2+/L without biomass
2+
recirculation, and 20 mg C­ u /L with biomass recirculation
6.1.11 Enhanced membrane bioreactor (EMBR) from pH 3 to 4. For the fourth and fifth experiments, the bio-
mass was recirculated with pH between 4 and 5 and 20 mg
An EMBR distinguishes itself from a classic membrane ­Cu2+/L. On the first day of the experiment, the biosorption
bioreactor in that it possesses an additional set of anode capacity of the first and second assays was 96%. The third
and cathode that can be employed to generate electricity experiment achieved 97% biosorption for 6 days, and the
for the system either internally or externally. Innumerable operation was further improved by pH fluctuation. The
interactions are produced along by electricity provided into biosorption capacity of aerobic biomass is 3.08 mmol/g.
the EMBR, lowering membrane fouling and preserving the A heavy-metal-resistant bacteria consortium was col-
effectiveness of the treatment process [139]. The EMBR is lected from a polluted river in Sao Paulo, Brazil, and used
made up of an oxygenated membrane bioreactor, an anaero- to construct a fixed-bed column for Cu removal [147]. A
bic tank, an oxygen-deficient tank, and a UV disinfection consortium biofilm was grown on granular activated carbon
unit. MBR has already shown greater efficiency through- (GAC) and evaluated for the removal of copper in a fixed-
out a broad spectrum of industrial wastewater remediation bed bioreactor. The Biofilm-GAC column retained 45% of
incorporating micro-pollutants, in contrast with traditional the copper mass contained in the influent, whereas the GAC-
treatment procedures [140]. The efficiency of an EMBR, containing control column retained 17%. Native microbial
which consists of two anoxic bioreactors, an aerobic mem- populations can be immobilized in fixed-bed bioreactors
brane bioreactor, a UV disinfection unit, and an activated to remediate heavy metal-contaminated water, according
carbon column, is tested. The aerated membrane bioreactor to the findings. Azizi et al. [148] reported that the modi-
was used to remove color, COD, total nitrogen, and total fied packed bed biofilm reactor (PBBR) biological system
phosphorus over the course of 100 days [141]. The efficiency was efficient to remove different loading concentrations of
of the hollow fiber microfiltration membrane submerged in heavy metals. The removal efficiency occurs at an optimum
the bioreactor was investigated utilizing the rate of trans- hydraulic retention time (HRT) of two hours at the outlet.
membrane pressure escalation and the generation of treated Selected heavy metals showed a removal trend in the series
water input [128]. Cu > Zn > Ni > Cd. Composite heavy metals were recog-
nized for the tolerable limit of 20 mg/L in PBBR treatment
6.1.12 Photobioreactor (PB) systems operating at optimum conditions over two hours
and concentrations above this have a negative influence
In the 1950s, the initial version of the PB was put forward. on treatment efficiency. Results revealed that high surface
At the Carnegie Institute in Washington, ­CO2 sequestration area media and huge microbial 32 (bacterial) communities
was first used to utilize PBs in wastewater treatment in 1953. of about 10000 mg/L are effective for removing industrial
Under controlled and organized conditions, PBs provide impurities from wastewater in PBBR biological systems.
the necessary conditions for the successful development of Using Statistical Design of Experiment (DOE), Miga-
algae, including temperature, light, mixing, and nutrients hed et al. [149] created an immobilized microbial consor-
[105, 142]. PBs that rely on microalgae are now available in tium using a combination of bacterial biomass and fungal
a variety of shapes, sizes, and construction types. The tube, spores in batch or continuous modes, Cr and Fe metal ions
flat plate, and column formats are the three most widely from industrial effluents were eliminated. Positive control
used microalgae-based PB designs [106, 143]. Eventually, a was applied using baking yeast. To speed up a biosorbent

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 Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

separation from treated solutions in batch mode, the immo- pentachlorophenol (PCP)-containing low-strength wastewa-
bilized biomass was contained in a membrane made of cel- ter has been treated anaerobically [160, 161].
lulose that resembled a hanging tea bag. The continuous
flow removal was carried out in a fixed-bed mini-bioreactor. 6.4 Intimate coupling of photocatalysis
Using the Response Surface Methodology, the procedure’s and biodegradation
pH (6.0) and flow rate (1 ml/min) were both tuned. Follow-
ing optimization, it was discovered that standard solutions A unique treatment approach called intimate coupling of
and industrial effluents were free of all Cr ions and more photocatalysis and biodegradation (ICPB), which combines
than half of Fe ions. the benefits of biological activity and photocatalytic pro-
Pseudomonas aeruginosa was isolated from Mariout cesses, has shown a lot of promise as a low-cost, environ-
Lake in Alexandria, Egypt, and used to remove ­Cd2+, ­Fe3+, mentally responsible, and long-lasting treatment technique.
­Cu2+, ­Mn2+, ­Co2+, ­Zn2+, ­Ni2+, and P ­ b2+ [24]. They fabri- Biofilm, porous carriers, and photocatalytic materials make
cated a fixed bed glass bioreactor packed with a solid sup- up the majority of the system. The fundamental idea behind
port luffa bulb and observed the removal of metal ions in the ICPB is to use photocatalysis on the surface of porous carri-
wastewater samples. The bio removal in batch cultures was ers to convert bio-recalcitrant contaminants into biodegrad-
studied with the effect of various physicochemical param- able products. The biofilm inside the carriers mineralized
eters. The effectiveness of percentage metal removal raised the biodegradable materials at the same time. The microbe
on bacterial biomass 750 mg/L on pH 7.5. The fixed-bed can continue to function even when exposed to UV light,
column brought about an increased removal performance of the mechanical force of flowing water, or the attack of free
100% for C ­ u2+, ­Zn2+, and C
­ d2+ ions and decreased consum- radicals thanks to the protection provided by the carriers.
ing time from 48 to 24 h controlled by optimum incubation ICPB was demonstrated in a photocatalytic circulating-
conditions. ­Fe3+ and P ­ b2+ exhibited 62% and 47% removal bed biofilm reactor by eliminating 2,4,5-trichlorophone
each with a rise of 20% in contrast to the batch system. (TCP) with a TiO2-coated cellulose carrier (PCBBR)[162].
TCP was destroyed and mineralized concurrently by photo-
catalysis into biodegradable compounds. In a continuous-
6.3 Bioreactors in pesticide removal flow PCBBR, Li et al. [3] employed ICPB to mineralize
TCP, removing 96.2% of TCP and 90% of DOC [163].
An immobilized biomass reactor (IBR) colonized by acti- Chlorophenol has been treated using a variety of tech-
vated sludge from a municipal wastewater treatment facility niques, such as physical absorption, biodegradation, and
was utilized to clean phytopharmaceutical plastic containers photocatalytic degradation [5]. Notably, it was recently
[150]. Lin et al. [151] researched on the aerobic treatment demonstrated that ICPB systems had a good capability
of wastewater from organophosphate pesticide production for degrading chlorophenol. Zhao et al. [43] created a new
facilities. method for ICPB to break down 4-chlorophenol. In the ICPB
The aerobic biodegradability of pesticides has received system, the researchers employed polyurethane sponge car-
a lot of research in recent years. Different bioreactors, riers loaded with ­TiO2/g-C3N4 and biofilms [67]. After 16 h
including membrane (MBR) [152], fluidized bed (FBBR) of operation, the N­ 2 selectivity was 86.3% and the nitrate
[153], sequencing batch (SBR) [154], and sequencing batch removal rate was 40.3%. They also suggested a potential
membrane (SB-MBR) [155], have been used to treat phe- mechanism for the ICPB’s nitrate reduction.
noxyalkanoic acid herbicides such as mecoprop (MCPP),
dichlorprop, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), and 6.5 Advanced oxidation process (AOPs)
2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA). However,
the anaerobic biodegradation of insecticides has received It is a rapid technology to remove organic pollutants from
little research too far. Cyclodiene pesticides (aldrin, isodrin, wastewater. It reduces the toxicity, odor, colour and also
dieldrin, and endrin) were dechlorinated by methanogenic improves the biodegradability of the pollutants by the
granular sludge with removal efficiencies of more than 60% microbes. The advanced oxidation process completely
at starting concentrations in the range of 7–9 mg/L [156]. mineralizes pollutants to C­ O2, water, and inorganic com-
In 60 days, 66% of the chlorpyrifos (1 mg/L) was pounds. It was first proposed by Glaze and Kang in 1989 to
destroyed [157]. Picloram (82 mg/L) was found to have treat potable water. During the oxidation process, hydroxyl
degraded by 85% in 30 days [158]. Atrazine removal of radicals (OH) are generated to mineralize pollutants from
50% was accomplished in up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket the wastewater. Later, the Advanced Oxidation Process was
(UASB) reactors and wetland sediments at concentrations expanded to include oxidative processes involving sulfate
between 5 and 10 mg/L [124, 159]. In an extended granu- radicals [43]. AOPs primarily fall into two categories: homo-
lar sludge bed (EGSB) reactor operating at 16 mgPCP/L/d, geneous and heterogeneous [130]. Catalysts are frequently

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Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

used in heterogeneous advanced oxidation processes to carry in light of recent technological improvements and increas-
out compound degradation. When opposed to homogeneous ing demand for small-scale, decentralized water treatment
processes, such heterogeneous catalysts have the advantage plants, electrocoagulation has been given a second look.
of easier product separation. Ozone-based [93, 127, 164] An appropriately sized and shaped container or reactor
UV-based [80, 165] electrochemical (eAOP) [93, 128, 166] is used for electrocoagulation, inside of which two elec-
and catalytic (cAOP) [43, 129, 167, 168] are the different trodes are positioned. The most basic configuration of an
subcategories of AOPs (Fig. 3). electrocoagulation reactor is an electrolytic cell with a
Although multiple novel AOPs for water treatment, such single anode and a single cathode. When the cell is con-
as those based on plasma, electron beams [114] ultrasound nected to an external power source, oxidation erodes the
[130, 131] or microwaves [115, 132] are always being stud- anode material electrochemically. The conducting metal
ied, new reports of these studies are constantly being made plates are colloquially known as “sacrificial electrodes”.
by different researchers. The great variety of studies, as well Sacrificial anodes and cathodes can be made of the same
as the expanding number of proposed technologies and pro- material or a separate one, such as a Fe electrode (Fig. 4).
cess combinations, offer a significant obstacle to a critical A stirrer is used to keep the liquid and slurries in the
evaluation of AOPs about their operational costs, sustain- reactor consistent. Anodic reactions occur on the posi-
ability, and overall viability [39, 133, 134]. tive side of an electrolytic cell, while cathodic reactions
occur on the negative side. Consumable metal plates,
6.6 Electrocoagulation such as iron or aluminum, are generally used as sacrificial
electrodes to continuously produce ions in the water. The
Electrocoagulation is an electrochemical technology for charges of the particles are neutralized by the released
cleansing polluted water that involves corroding sacrifi- ions, which initiates the coagulation process. Unwanted
cial anodes to release active coagulant precursors (often contaminants are removed by the released ions via chemi-
aluminum or iron cations into solution) [169, 170]. Elec- cal reaction, precipitation, or by causing colloidal compo-
trolytic reactions at the cathode generate gas, often in the nents to coalesce, which can then be removed via flotation
form of hydrogen bubbles [171]. Yet, electrocoagulation [172].
has never been considered a “mainstream” water treatment Water containing colloidal particles, oils, or other pollut-
procedure. The lack of a systematic approach to electroco- ants may undergo ionization, electrolysis, hydrolysis, and the
agulation reactor design/operation, as well as the issue of generation of free radicals as it travels through the applied
electrode reliability, have impeded its adoption (especially electric field, altering the physical and chemical properties
the issue of electrode passivation over time). Until now, of the water and contaminants. Pollutants are liberated from

Fig. 3  Water treatment using

advanced oxidation process

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 Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

by microalgae plus bacteria [177]. Co-cultivated microbes

can interact cooperatively, which improves the total uptake
of nutrients and makes these systems more resilient to
changes in environmental circumstances [178].
There is a dearth of comprehensive knowledge regard-
ing the mechanisms of degradation involved and the
impact of operational factors on pesticide removal. It is
important to re-evaluate the removal performance of vari-
ous procedures under varied operational circumstances
using the appropriate sampling protocols.

8 Conclusion

Wastewaters from industries originating durine chemical

synthesis may comprise lethal organic and inorganic residues
Fig. 4  Mechanism of wastewater treatment using electrocoagulation
which pose a threat to the quality of surface and groundwa-
ter. Therefore, pollutant treatment from water sources is a
the water and eliminated or made less soluble as a result of crucial research domain for the safety of aquatic systems. A
the reactive and excited condition [172]. sewage treatment plant is also the key point where surface
water receives toxic residues. The removal of organic and
inorganic residues using traditional wastewater treatment
7 Future aspects methods is ineffective. Substantial effective advancements
have been implemented in wastewater treatment processes
Municipal sewage treatment plants (STPs) are one of the to eliminate toxic compounds. The majority of treatment
main possible entrance points for PPCPs into the environ- techniques are biologically based, followed by some physical
ment [151]. In a given research area or between different or chemical methods. For the emerging contaminants such
geographic locations, significant variance in EC values was as pharmaceutically active compounds existing technologies
found in influent samples from several Waste Water Treat- are to be analyzed for their effectiveness. Toxic organic and
ment Plants (WWTPs). This suggests that the environment’s inorganic leftovers from chemical synthesis may be present
concentration of ECs is influenced by regional variations in in industrial wastewaters, endangering the quality of surface
usage patterns, climatic factors, population size and density, and groundwater. As a result, one of the most important
analytical techniques, and sampling techniques. The use of study areas for the security of aquatic systems is the remedi-
inappropriate sampling strategies could make it more dif- ation of pollutants from water sources. The primary location
ficult to detect ECs scientifically. Grab sampling was used where harmful substances are introduced into surface water
as the basis for studies on the detection and fate of ECs in is a sewage treatment plant. Using conventional wastewater
WWTPs. This method allows for the detection of EC con- treatment techniques to remove organic and inorganic con-
centration at a certain moment. The precise concentration taminants is inefficient. Toxic substances have been removed
and fate of ECs must be determined using composite sam- from wastewater by the implementation of significant, suc-
pling techniques [173]. cessful breakthroughs. The bulk of therapy procedures are
The WWTP may facilitate the transmission of antibi- based on biological principles, then some use physical or
otics, antibiotic resistance genes, and antibiotic-resistant chemical means. Existing technologies’ efficacy about new
bacteria by connecting several environmental compart- pollutants such pharmaceutically active chemicals have to
ments, such as city sewage and surface water [174]. To be evaluated.
the best of our knowledge, no studies have looked at the
Acknowledgements All authors thank their respective universities and
antibiotic resistance pattern in both the WWTP and its
institutes for their support.
receiving water at the same time. Researchers have looked
at the impact of the wastewater treatment process on the Author contributions This research article was produced through col-
prevalence of drug-resistant bacteria in WWTP or its laboration between the authors. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
receiving water body [139, 140, 175, 176]. The remedia-
tion of wastewater benefits greatly from the use of both Funding No external research funding for this review work.
natural and artificial microalgal consortia by microalgae or

13
Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

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Journal of Umm Al-Qura University for Applied Sciences

Authors and Affiliations

Preethy Chandran1 · Sneha Suresh1 · Balamuralikrishnan Balasubramain2 · Jaya Gangwar3 · Asha S. Raj1 ·
U. L. Aarathy1 · Arun Meyyazhagan3 · Manikantan Pappuswamy3 · Joseph Kadanthottu Sebastian3

2
* Joseph Kadanthottu Sebastian Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College
[email protected] of Life Science, Sejong University, Seoul 05006,
Republic of Korea
1
School of Environmental Studies, Cochin University 3
Department of Life Science, School of Sciences, Christ
of Science and Technology, Kalamassery, Kochi 682022,
University, Bengaluru 560029, Karnataka, India
Kerala, India

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