DESIGN ANALYSIS OF A FLOOD WATER RESERVOIR TO MITIGATE FLOOD

SPREAD IN BONNY LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Floods are a natural part of the hydrologic cycle. In some countries man can exploit

overflowing water to his benefit; in other place she fights against it unceasingly. What is the

basic cause of a flood?

Each flood is unique and has different causes; however, they can basically be divided into

five groups:

 long-lasting precipitation covering a large area

 short intensive storms

 snow melt

 natural or artificial reduction of a cross-section area (ice barrier, trees)

 failure of a water structure

Floods have many negative effects. Their primary effects include physical damage (damaged

structures, bridges, sewage systems, buildings, cars, etc.) and casualties (people and livestock

die due to drowning or subsequent epidemics and diseases). Their secondary effects include,

e.g. contamination of water, unhygienic conditions, the death of intolerant species of flora;

and their tertiary effects include long-term economic effects.

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There are many flood protection methods, both active and passive. But we cannot generalize

their application, because each locality is different and many parameters affect the design.

Minimizing flood risk can be achieved in three ways:

1. decreasing the accumulated discharge. This can be provided by water structures, weir

dams, detention reservoirs or flooding less valuable parts of a region.

2. increasing the capacity of a water course

3. instituting corrections and arrangements in the flooded area (e.g. planning, warning, rescue

services, etc.).

Flood protection is realized on bigger streams and rivers by dikes and water schemes, but

such solutions are ecologically and economically impossible on small streams. Therefore,

building a dry detention reservoir is a very progressive solution nowadays.

It is an effective water structure, which has no noisy effects on the environment and can even

be an aesthetic part of the countryside. It has to retain the flood wave and prevent an odd

amount of water from flowing outside the river bed. A village can be protected against the

static impacts of the water (overflowing) as well as the dynamic impacts (erosion, sediment

transport and damage to roads and bridges).

Floods can be devastating, and they are frequently compared to all other natural disasters

worldwide, because they have the highest number of casualties and the highest economic

losses. The worldwide average direct annual cost of natural disasters between 2000 and 2012

was roughly $100 billion (Kousky, 2015). The following facts are presented based on flood-

associated studies (Loster, 1999). One-third of natural catastrophes can be considered to be

floods, one of every ten fatalities due to natural disasters are flood-related, and flooding is

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responsible for one-third of overall economic loss ($250 billion worldwide over the last

fifteen years alone). A stark 95–97% of fatalities from natural disasters are caused by floods

in developing countries. At the same time, 90% of natural disasters include flooding, causing

a $6 billion annual loss in the world economy. The impact of floods can vary throughout the

population and industrial activities of both developed and developing countries (Hassanet al

2017; Manninget al 2017). However, some research studies support the severity of floods,

and in recent years, the frequency of floods has increased (Aronicaet al, 2012). Flood

situations tend to worsen with climate change, land subsidence, urbanization, and population

growth.

1.2 Statement of Problem

The blueprint of the Federal and State governments’ plans is yet to be released on how to

alleviate the sufferings of the flood-devastated people of Nigeria, especially those in Rivers

State. The 2012 flood disaster was a rehearsal compared to the just-gone 2022 flood

catastrophe. The flood came, and the people, especially those in the coastal areas of Rivers

State, were helpless, as they had nothing to prevent or curb the situation. All they could do

was save some of their properties, uproot their crops (mature and immature) as much as they

could, and get their family members and loved ones to safe havens. Unfortunately, some lost

their lives in the process, and who knows what will become the fate of the people if the

Nigerian government does nothing quickly about the situation and flood comes again in the

next few years, just like it came this year after the year 2012. Diverse health challenges also

arose during and even after the waters dried up. Emphatically, the waters may have dried up,

but the flood’s aftermath lives on and will continue for years. According to the World Health

Organization (2012), during the flood, there is an increased risk of infection of waterborne

diseases contracted through direct contact with polluted waters, such as wound infections,

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dermatitis, conjunctivitis, and ear, nose, and throat infections. Therefore, there is need to

apply structural measures through the design of flood water reservoir and other non-structural

measures to mitigate flood spread.

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this research is to determine an appropriate design analysis approach for a flood

water reservoir to mitigate flood spread in Bonny LGA.

1.4 Objectives of the study

Objectives of this research work include the following

i. To achieve an appropriate design analysis approach for a flood water reservoir to

mitigate flood spread in Bonny LGA with the use of dam.

ii. To determine efficient non-structural measures to mitigate flood spread in Bonny

LGA.

1.5 Significance of the study

Floods cause damage by depositing mud and debris after the floodwaters have finally

subsided and by the tremendous force of the moving water. Those who have never been

through a flood might not understand the perils of moving water. When the speed of the

running water doubles, the energy associated with it multiplies by a ratio of four, increasing

proportionately to the square of the speed. Flooding is frequently associated with water

moving more quickly than usual, partly due to the weight of more water upstream, which

causes an increase in the pressure gradient that drives the flow. Most often, the debris that the

flood waters carry—trees, cars, rocks, and buildings increase the flood’s potential for

destruction. When the seas are moving quickly enough, they can wash away everything in

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their path and leave scenes of awful devastation in their wake. Hence this study will be

significant both to individuals, NGOs, private sector and government and its agencies in

order to be abreast with necessary measures to combat the flood menace in Bonny LGA and

Rivers State and Nigeria at large.

1.6 Limitation of the Study

The major limitation of the study is finance and as such this project sets a detailed theoretical

design approach for a flood water reservoir in the study area.

1.7 Definition of Terms

 Flood

A flood is an overflow of water (or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is

usually dry.In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the

inflow of the tide. Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies,

such as a river, lake, or ocean, in which the water overtops or breaks levees, resulting

in some of that water escaping its usual boundaries, or it may occur due to an

accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an a real flood.

 Reservoir

Reservoir, an open-air storage area (usually formed by masonry or earthwork) where

water is collected and kept in quantity so that it may be drawn off for use.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Flooding is a common occurrence in many parts of the entire mangrove belt of Nigeria and

fresh water especially at the high tide or during rainy season. Flooding also occurs in

floodplains of large rivers and many areas and town especially those located on flat or low-

ling terrain where adequate provisions have not been made for surface drainage or drainages

have been blocked by municipal wastes and eroded soil sediments.

2.1 Extent of Past Works

2.1.1 The Concept of Flooding

In the words of Jonkman and Kelman (2015), flooding is “the presence of water in locations

that are typically dry.” A flood is defined as a considerable increase in the water level in a

stream, lake, reservoir, or coastal area by the Center for Research on the Epidemiology of

Disasters (CRED) in 2019. Geoscience Australia (2013) defines flooding as an event that

happens when a typically dry area of the earth’s surface is submerged and covered in water as

a result of heavy rain or a water body overflowing. Additionally, flooding was defined by

Pagasa (2013) as a natural hydrological phenomenon that typically occurs as a result of

metrological occurrences like earthquake activity. High tides co-occurring with heavy rains,

the building of temporary dams, and the breakdown of hydraulic and other control structures

are all astronomically influenced occurrences.

According to Jonkman (2015), Ashley and Ashley (2018), and other sources, the most

prevalent types of flooding are riverine floods, which are brought on by the gradual buildup

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of heavy rainfall, and flash floods, which are distinguished by high-velocity flows and short

warning intervals. However, Ahern et al. (2015) suggested that meals can be categorized

based on nature and cause (heavy rainfall, tidal solid movements, structural failure) (e.g.,

regularity, speed of onset, velocity, depth of water, spatial and temporal scale). Additionally,

according to Dewan et al. (2014), there are other sorts of floods, including coastal floods

brought on by storm surges, rain floods caused by inadequate drainage, monsoon floods in

the flood plains of major rivers, and flash floods from overflowing mountainous rivers.

Finally, Usman (2012) noted that despite not being the primary source of fatalities, river

flooding affects and uproots more people than any other natural disaster.

According to Hunt (2015), weather elements like heavy or prolonged precipitation, snowmelt,

or storm surges from cyclones, as well as significant human factors like a structural dam and

levee failures, changes to absorbent land cover with impervious surfaces, and insufficient

drainage systems can increase the intensity of floods. Although the consequences of floods

vary in intensity and scope depending on the topography, the level of human activity, the

amount of water present, and the stakeholders’ level of preparedness, they are always

incapacitating (Dalil et al., 2015). Flooding is perhaps the weather-related hazard with the

most significant global reach (Doswell, 2015). It can happen almost everywhere. A flood is

defined as water spilling onto normally dry terrain. Floods can occur in various ways that are

not directly tied to current meteorological conditions, although they are frequently associated

with heavy rainfall. So, to give a thorough account of floods, it is necessary to mention

processes that may have little to no connection to climatic phenomena. However, it is evident

that in the end, the water that causes floods has already fallen as precipitation at some point,

possibly in the distant past. Therefore, no matter what specific event produces the floods, the

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primary cause of flooding ultimately stems from meteorological processes that produce

precipitation.

Floods cause damage by depositing mud and debris after the floodwaters have finally

subsided and by the tremendous force of the moving water. Those who have never been

through a flood might not understand the perils of moving water. When the speed of the

running water doubles, the energy associated with it multiplies by a ratio of four, increasing

proportionately to the square of the speed. Flooding is frequently associated with water

moving more quickly than usual, partly due to the weight of more water upstream, which

causes an increase in the pressure gradient that drives the flow. Most often, the debris that the

flood waters carry—trees, cars, rocks, and buildings increase the flood’s potential for

destruction. When the seas are moving quickly enough, they can wash away everything in

their path and leave scenes of awful devastation in their wake.

Even if the movement of the water does not directly harm objects, the effect of the water

itself can have a devastating impact on buildings and the things inside of them. For example,

books, furniture, photographs, electronic devices, and other items can all be harmed just by

submerging them in water. Additionally, floodwaters frequently include dissolved chemicals,

possibly hazardous bacteria, and suspended sediment. This indicates that drinking water

supplies are typically compromised by floods, leading to temporary shortages of potable

water and additional long-term costs for restoring drinking water service to people in a

flooded area.

When floodwaters recede, mud and debris are left behind that can be expensive to clean up

and pose a health risk, especially if drowned wild and domestic animals’ remains are among

the debris. Floods can sometimes push wild creatures (including invertebrates of many kinds)

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out of their natural habitats and into places that are nearby or already flooded. This can cause

several issues, especially if the species are venomous or hostile.

Flooding is one of the natural processes that shape the earth, despite its significant

detrimental effects on people. One of the most fruitful places on earth is the floodplains that

line rivers and streams. For this reason, most of the so-called “cradles of civilization” are

located within floodplains (e.g., the Nile River and the Tigris–Euphrates River, among

others). Therefore, ever since humans have been in the path of these natural disasters, they

have been positively and negatively affected by flooding.

2.1.2 Causes of Flooding

However, flooding is not entirely natural and threatens the ecosystem. Furthermore, due to

man’s propensity towards coastal areas and flood plains, flooding frequently has an

unfavorable impact on human activities and poses a risk when it does. Agbonkhese et al.

(2014) elaborated on the causes of flood disasters around the world, including:

Human Interaction with His Environment: As was already established, human contact

with the environment through industrialization, technological advancement, urbanization,

deforestation, fossil fuel burning, and agricultural activities significantly contribute to

flooding. Undoubtedly, human activities are becoming a more significant factor in flooding.

Natural surfaces are being replaced as urbanization grows, which prevents water from easily

percolating into the ground. The result is that a significant amount of rainfall that would often

soak into the ground or be deflected by vegetation, delaying surface run-off into streams and

rivers and causing them to flood, is instead immediately available.

Bad Planning: Floods are also the product of poor design, and when humans have tried to

control the water resources available to them by building dams and other water control

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structures, they have also failed, leading to floods. The 1988 Bagauda Dam collapse near

Kano had disastrous environmental effects; the widespread drainage system failures

throughout Nigeria, the encroachment of buildings on the flood plains of streams and rivers

running through towns and cities, and the deposition of waste materials in their courses are all

excellent examples.

2.1.3 Impact of Flooding

Obinna et al. (2014) classify flood damage into direct and indirect, followed by tangible

and intangible. When floodwater comes into direct physical contact with people, property,

or the environment, harm is produced. In contrast, indirect flood damage refers to

businesses losing production due to the flood (Obinna et al., 2014). Substantial damages

are those that are quantifiable in money, whereas intangible damages are those that are

not quantifiable in money (Obinna et al., 2014).

However, the impact of flood can be discussed using the following subheadings, as

mentioned by Obinna et al. (2018):

Economic Damage: Obinna et al. (2018) noted in their article on the effects of flooding

among residents living along Taylor Creek in the Orashi region of Rivers state, Nigeria,

that the area’s ongoing flooding has an impact on residents’ social and economic

environments because it destroys agricultural farmland and seeds stored for replanting,

which leads to a decline in food production and income loss for many in the affected

communities. Many assume that unpleasant effects will inevitably result once flooding is

mentioned. Flooding has both beneficial and harmful effects. Some authors have talked

about the detrimental effects, while others have talked about the beneficial ones.

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According to Barinweni et al. (2012), flooding seriously harms local biodiversity, public

health, and property. Rapid run-off that results in soil erosion and the destruction of

aquatic life’s reproductive habitats is a common component of flooding. When a severe

flood lasts for a very long period, it impairs agricultural activities. It causes traffic

congestion in areas with low-raised routes, endangering the safety of the nation’s food

supply. Floods can affect different land uses and drainage systems. Flooding damages

urban and rural infrastructure, including public buildings and hydroelectric/thermal power

plants, which results in enormous financial losses and disruption and exacerbates the

already difficult security situation.

Flooding can cause loss of livelihood, production, and other long-term economic effects

that can force the afflicted population to relocate or be displaced, as stated by Ekanem et

al. (2014).

Disease Outbreak: In the just experienced 2022 flood disaster, for example, the people

of Rivers State suffered and are continuing to suffer the scorching negative impact of it.

For instance, mosquitoes reproduce in or near stagnant or slowly flowing water and

spread some severe illnesses.

El-Sayed et al. (2017) found an association between increases in mosquito-borne

transmission and the accumulation of stagnant water caused by floodwaters obstructing

drains. Waterborne illnesses, including typhoid fever, cholera, leptospirosis, and vector-

borne illnesses like malaria, dengue, and dengue hemorrhagic fever, can spread due to

flooding’s harmful effects on physical health. Waterborne illnesses are illnesses brought

on by drinking contaminated water. Most often, pollutants like sewage, human and

animal waste, pesticides and insecticides, fertilizers, oil, asbestos, and rusted building

materials pollute floodwater (Public Health Laboratory Service, 2000). Waterborne

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illnesses are illnesses brought on by drinking contaminated water. Examples include, but

are not limited to, typhoid fever, cholera, diarrhea, dermatitis, conjunctivitis, and wound

infections. According to reports, the study population experienced an increase in the

cholera outbreak following the flood.

In a routine data study on typhoid and paratyphoid fever risk factors by Vollaard et al.

(2014), it was found that flooding increased the outbreak of typhoid and paratyphoid

among responders. On health, flooding has had a negative impact. In a case-control study

by Sur et al. (2018) on a severe cholera outbreak following floods, it was revealed that the

study population had an increase in cholera outbreaks following the flood.

In a surveillance study by Ogden et al. (2016) on Emergency health surveillance after

severe flooding in Louisiana, Pre-hospital and Disaster Medicine, it was discovered that

respondents reported musculoskeletal injuries, lacerations, motor vehicle injuries, and

falls. A total of 124 households were sampled at random for the study.

Contamination of Potable Water: Flooding destroys sanitary restrooms and

contaminates clean water sources. Waterborne illnesses and life-threatening infectious

diseases are caused by direct and indirect contact with the contaminants, whether by

direct food intakes, vector insects like flies, dirty hands, dirty plates, or other utensils.

Additionally, the pollutants can seep into groundwater and sanitary sewer lines through

the ground. Additionally, due to flooding, sewage treatment facilities backed up into

homes and low-lying areas, and malfunctioning equipment may be overburdened with

filthy run-off waters and sewage. Private sewage disposal systems can become a source of

infection and illness when they break or overflow. Private wells can also be severely

contaminated or ruined by floodwaters (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

2005). In this way, diseases like cholera, typhoid, and dysentery, which can be deadly,

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can spread due to unclean drinking and washing water, poor sanitation, and poor sewage

treatment. Basic hygiene, or having access to clean, safe water and toilets, is essential to

preventing a health catastrophe.

Mental Health Challenge: Insomnia, anxiety, sadness, stress, post-traumatic stress

disorder, and suicidal thoughts are some of the mental health effects of floods. The effects

of flooding and its aftermath on people’s mental health can be very diverse.

Reacher et al. (2014) conducted a case-control study on the health effects of flooding,

comparing the reported gastrointestinal and other illnesses and mental health in flooded

and non-flooded households through telephone interviews with 227 cases (house flooded

and 240 controls (non-matched) using interview guide for data collection and analysis

were done using descriptive statistics. They discovered that adults whose homes were

flooded experienced mental distress four times more frequently than those whose homes

were not flooded.

The World Health Organization (WHO) acknowledges that individuals involved in

disaster preparedness or service delivery have not thoroughly addressed the psychosocial

effects of floods; however, the primary evidence is related to common mental illness,

post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicidal ideation (World Health Organization, 2011).

Stanke et al. (2012) further stated that flooding is exceptionally stressful and that the

tension lasts long after the water has subsided. Numerous epidemiological research

revealed that flooding could cause common mental problems (such as anxiety and

depression), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and suicide, according to a review by

Ahern et al. (2015). Additionally, the Pitt Review (2007) discovered that tension, anxiety,

and depression are the most typical associations with flooding.

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 According to Gray’s (2016) research on the long-term impacts of experiencing floods, the

main effects on participants included continuous uneasiness, a lack of security, anxiety,

and a sense of loss of home, as well as loss of social contact and strain on personal

relationships. Additionally, the overleaf pictures depict some of the negative impacts of

the 2022 flood in some areas of Rivers State.

Growth of Settlements: On the flip side, flooding appears to have some positive

impacts. According to Backinsal (2016) and Chisolm (2019), floods can cause settlements

to grow, and in most situations, the settlements start along the river. According to

Robinson (2019), flooding has improved the existence and growth of agricultural

settlements and cities’ development since antiquity.

Robinson (2019) adds that city life spread from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia through

the Mediterranean Sea, with the flooding of associated rivers very helpful. The earliest

towns appear to have grown up in the great river low lands of the near and middle east,

Robinson (2019) says. Observable morphological features, such as those found between

Aboh and Samabiri in the lower Niger and those along the river Amazon and its

tributaries, can equally occur due to flooding to develop settlements and support their

inhabitants, according to Faniran and Jeje (2013). This is true even in non-deltaic

environments.

According to Oyebande (2014), floods are a natural occurrence that is a natural

phenomenon that we should try our best to regulate. However, flood waters can be highly

vital for many ecosystems if they are contained and appropriately managed.

2.2 Limitations of Review of Past Work

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There are various studies on flood water systems for flood control in the literature. Acanal et

al. (2000) proposed a six-stage operation policy for routing floods with return periods from

1.01 year up to the probable maximum flood (PMF) for dams having a gated spillway. They

showed regardless of the size and timing of any incoming flood, the proposed six-stage

operation policy could be used for flood routing.

Cheng and Chau (2004) used fuzzy iteration methodology for developing an integrated plan

for flood management in reservoirs in China and developed a flood-control software for real-

time operation of reservoirs.

Karaboga et al. (2007) presented a control method based on fuzzy logic controller and Tabu

Search (TS) algorithm for operation of spillway gates of a reservoir during maximum

probable flood event. TS algorithm was employed to optimally determine the rule base of a

fuzzy controller.

Ngo et al. (2007) used simulation and optimization techniques for optimal operation of a

reservoir in Vietnam. They used Shuffled Complex Evolution (SCE) technique for

optimization and MIKE 11 simulation model for calculating water level in downstream river.

In their optimization model, objective function was formulated to maximize the water level in

the reservoir while minimizing water level in the flood plain.

Wei and Hsu (2009) presented a methodology to establish a set of optimal operation release

rules which were tree-based rules for real-time flood control on a multipurpose multi-

reservoir system. They reported that the derived rules can be used to determine the optimal

real-time releases during flood periods.

Cheng et al. (2008) applied the technique of decision tree analysis to determine the optimal

reservoir release and tradeoff judgment of reservoir operations between flood control and

15
water supply according to economic efficiency. They used Muskingum method for flood

routing.

Wei and Hsu (2008) developed a generalized multipurpose multi-reservoir optimization

model to determine the optimal hourly releases from reservoirs under the estuary tidal effects

during typhoon periods, for basin-scale flood control. In this study, the proposed channel

level routing developed from the feed-forward back-propagation neural network is employed

to estimate the downstream water levels.

Malekmohammadi et al. (2009) developed a new methodology for real-time flood

management in river-reservoir systems. This methodology was based upon combining a

genetic algorithm (GA) and k-nearest neighbor (K-NN) algorithm for the development of

optimal operating rules in a cascade of two reservoirs.

Valeriano et al. (2010) coupled a physically based distributed hydrological model with a

heuristic optimization algorithm for joint dam operation to reduce the flood peaks

downstream. The developed system was applied to the upper Tone River in Japan, and the

results indicated that the proposed integrated operation can effectively reduce a flood peak,

suggesting the feasibility of realtime operation in future developments.

Kumar et al. (2010) adopted folded dynamic programming (FDP) for developing optimal

reservoir operation policies for flood control in case study of Hirakud Reservoir in Mahanadi

basin, India. They applied the Muskingum method as a hydrological flood routing method.

Li et al. (2010) presented a novel multi-objective shuffled frog leaping algorithm (MOSFLA)

to the multi-objective optimization problem. This algorithm can generate a solution set with

uniform spread and good convergence for the problems with two conflicting objectives,

including minimizing the highest reservoir water level and minimizing the peak flood

16
discharge. A historical review and major developments in the application of optimization

models for optimal operation of multi-reservoir systems in flood conditions can be found in

Malekmohammadi (2010).

2.3 Knowledge Gap

There are some points that may help to clarify the contributions of this paper:

The existing studies about flood-control reservoirs such as mentioned papers are

concentrated on optimal operation of single or multi-reservoir systems. But studies on design

of flood-control structures are sparse or unavailable especially in Rivers State. The present

study fills this gap.

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 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

 Computer system

 Computer software (Python)

3.1.1 Data Source and Collection

Bonny Island is approximately 40km South of Port Harcourt and on the leeward side of the

Cameroon Mountain. It is the Administrative Headquarters of Bonny Local Government

Areas of Rivers State, Nigeria (Figures 2 and 3) Grand Bonny, Finima, Opusunju, Kala

Sunju, Green Iwoama and Kalaibiama are the major communities that make up the Island.

The Island lies on the Lat. 4o27N and Long 7o10E with an estimated population of

270,000[18]. The Island has a relatively flat topography on an elevation of 3.05 atmospheric

mean sea level with a total land area of 214.52m 2[19] with about 70% of its size suffering

from tidal flooding and land subsidence. The geology of the area comprises basically of

alluvial sedimentary basin and basement complex. The sub strata of the island consist mainly

of fine sands, down to about 10m with occasional clay layers.

According to[20] Bonny Island has lost about 1,793.24 km 2 of coastline between 1986 and

2006 with a greater percentage (76.62%) of this loss occurring between 1986 and 2001

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coinciding with the massive constructions of NLNG, expansion of Shell export terminal and

other anthropogenic influences as a result of influx to the small Island.

Bonny Island is basically a rain forest vegetation area with brackish mangrove forest

vegetation established at the banks of the Bonny River and its tributaries. The greater

northern half up to the east of Bonny Town, next to the Opobo Channel is mainly mangroves,

and lies just above sea level (Figure 3). The southern part lies higher and contains typically

(degraded) freshwater swamp forests, in some places mixed with mangrove, open swamp, dry

land rainforest or dune slacks[21]. The southern Atlantic coast of Bonny Island encompasses

a beach ridge barrier and a sandy beach. The coastal situation is characterized by a large, 20

km wide, offshore sand bank: the Bonny Bar. It protects the coastline against ocean currents

and waves. The island itself is dissected by several creeks.

The tidal flood on Bonny Island causes inundation on the coastal settlement. The sea water

area is extending to the land (as a result of the accompanying coastal erosion) leading to the

loss of land and change to the coastline[20].

3.2 Methods

The design and construction of an efficiently functional reservoir that fulfils the needs and

purpose to its beneficiaries is the primary goal of this project. A well defined design process

will greatly increase the probability of creating a reservoir for flood control that will satisfy

this goal. The following are factors to consider when designing a pneumatic water pumping

machine.

1. Needs Analysis: In determining needs for specific facility, the designer must perform

a comprehensive and detailed analysis. Often part of a larger water supply plan, a

water transportation study can be a valuable analytical tool. Inventory of total

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 pumping machines and water reservoirs within a specific area, analysis of specific

problems such as location or deficiency of low pipe born water supply, human

population, and distance from the machine to the reservoir must be considered.

Determination of water output duration, turnover rates and identifying access

difficulties and poor plant material condition is necessary.

2. Safety: As public safety expectations are increasing all over the world, reservoir-dam

safety legislation generally obliges to undertake a reservoir-dam-break analysis to

give information about the consequences of dam failure. Therefore, in cases where

dam safety legislation is in force it is a common requirement that reservoir-dam-break

flood analysis must be undertaken, even, for small reservoir-dams. Rescue action

preparedness and emergency planning are also generally a mandatory requirement,

unless the consequences of reservoir-dam failure are low.

3.2.1 Types And Properties Of Material

3.2.1.1. DESIGN STRENGTH: The design strength of any material depends on its ability to

sustain a load without undue deformation or a failure. The tension or compression test

is primarily used to determine the relationship between the average normal stress and

average normal strain.

3.2.1.2 DESIGN WEAKNESS: Design weakness simply points to the potency of the

materials used for the construction. There are strength limitations related to the

material which makes it not capable of carrying certain amount of load at a given

period of time. This weakness makes the material vulnerable to cracks, deformation,

or failure.

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3.2.1.3 APPLICATION: Engineering materials have been used or applied in various aspects

in our society today and these materials have provided friendly solutions to a myriad

of challenges we face today. Most of these cannot be achieved without revolutionary

developments in the very materials we use for both the everyday objects in our life

and for more exotic applications. For example, the automotive, building, offshore and

medical industries all depend on advanced engineering material technology.

Innovations in these fields often require materials that must meet contradictory,

nearly impossible demands. Materials that are strong and heat resistant but flexible,

or both tough and wear resistant but lightweight.

3.2.1.4 METAL FORMING: In general, metal forming is another considerable property of

material which entails the ability of metal to be plastically deformed to shape it into a

desired geometry. In order to plastically deform a metal, a force must be applied that

will exceed the yield strength of the material. Basically, it will compress, stretch, and

bend a small amount. The magnitude of the amount will be directly proportional to

the force applied. Also the material will return to its original geometry once the force

is released (elasticity).

3.2.1.5 MACHINING AND JOINING: An engineering material used for construction must

be submissive to machining and joining processes. In a fabrication shop, the

machining of such materials can be done using various machines such as the lathe

machine, drilling machine, milling machine, etc. In the same vein, joining of materials

can be done by welding, binding by adhesives, riveting, threaded fasteners, etc.

3.2.2 Materials and Processes

 Dam construction

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Dam construction is often complex and requires a wide range of professionals from different

disciplines.

Civil engineers are generally responsible for determining the best type of dam for the site,

and for producing technical drawings showing the construction process.

They will consult with engineering geologists and hydrologists on the technical details of the

site and the required specifications dependent on the amount of water involved.

Mechanical engineers will be contracted to design the necessary pipework, valves and

floodgates.

Geotechnical engineers will determine whether the rock or soil below the proposed dam is

strong enough to accommodate the weight and for determining possible permeability.

In very broad terms, the typical sequence of events for dam construction is as follows:

 River diversion

Water flowing in a river or stream is diverted to create a dry area in which to construct the

dam.

Lower flows will be capable of diverting through tunnels or channels built around the side of

the dam area, excavated using explosives where necessary.

Higher flows may be too difficult to divert using separate channels, so instead a dry pit is

formed on one side of the river, leaving the other side open for water to flow through. The

dam is constructed in sections, with dry areas built in sequence. Openings are provided in the

dam to allow the river to flow through.

 Foundations

22
The foundation is built below the original ground level, with weaker soils or rock removed

and replaced with stronger materials if necessary. Cracks and fissures in the rock foundations

must be filled with grout to stop water leakage. Holes are drilled into the rock and grout

pumped into them, spreading outwards and filling the cracks.

 Building the dam

Concrete dams will need a large quantity of ready concrete, so a concrete batching plant is

often built on site. Concrete is then transferred to the dam either using a system of conveyor

belts or using trucks and cranes. The traditional method of placing the concrete is to pour it

into a formwork mould made in the required shape of the dam. The dam is built upwards 1-2

m at a time, and the concrete left to cure before the next section is formed on top. An

alternative method is to spread a concrete mix and compact it down using rollers. The dam is

raised in steps of around 600 mm at a time. Low concrete walls on the upstream and

downstream faces are formed first, with concrete then spread in thin layers in between the

walls, before being compacted using rollers.

Embankment dams are constructed in a series of thin layers from the bottom upwards.

Bulldozers spread fill material in a thin layer, usually 300 mm thick if using earth, or up to 1

m thick for rock-fill. The core of the dam is also constructed in layers so that it maintains the

same height as the rest of the dam. A protective layer is formed on the upstream face once the

full height has been achieved. This protects against wave damage and often provides

waterproofing.

 Post-construction

23
Once the dam has been constructed the reservoir can then be filled, if it has not been during

construction (in the case of high flow rivers). Valves and floodgates must be extensively

tested, and the behaviour of the dam must be monitored.

24
3.3 Design Analysis/Calculations

Reservoir-Dam is classified into three namely:

Low Hazard Potential.—Dams in rural or agricultural areas where failure may damage farm

buildings, agricultural land, or township and country roads.

• Significant Hazard Potential.—Dams in predominantly rural or agricultural areas where

failure may damage isolated homes, main highways or minor railroads, or interrupt service of

relatively important public utilities.

• High Hazard Potential.—Dams where failure may cause loss of life or serious damage to

homes, industrial and commercial buildings, important public utilities, main highways, or

railroads.

The following mathematical computation and consideration when designing a reservoir-dam

are detailed bellowed with respect to the three classes of reservoir-dam.

 Peak Breach Discharge Criteria

Evaluating dam failure with the water surface elevation of the reservoir at the dam crest or

the peak reservoir stage resulting from the probable maximum flood (PMF). The minimum

peak discharge of the breach hydrograph, regardless of the technique used to analyze the

downstream inundation area, is

25
The peak discharge value determined by using principles of erosion, hydraulics, and sediment

transport may be used in lieu of the peak discharge computed using the equations presented.

26
 Principal Spillway Design Hydrographs

The runoff from a storm duration of not less than 10 days will be used for sizing the principal

spillway. The return period for design precipitation amounts depends on the dam’s hazard

potential classification, purpose, size, location, and type of auxiliary spillway. Figure 2–1

below shows minimum return period principal spillway hydrologic criteria by hazard

potential classification.

Table 3.1: Table of Minimum Principal Spillway Hydrologic Criteria

 GEOLOGIC AND GEOTECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The following geologic and geotechnical investigation to determine the site conditions and

dam features that require special attention include, but are not limited to;

27
Soils with Dispersive Clays

Soils containing dispersive clays are extremely erosive. Dams constructed using dispersive

clays are vulnerable to internal erosion failures and require special design considerations.

Geologic investigations for soils containing dispersive clays require special sampling

procedures. This includes obtaining many discrete samples and preserving the samples at

their natural water content.

Karst

Karst terrain requires detailed evaluation of potential subsidence, seepage, and leakage in the

dam foundation and reservoir floor. Thoroughly evaluate these issues as they have significant

impact on the design, construction, cost, performance, and safety of the structure.

Collapsible Soils

Evaluate the potential of moisture deficient, low density, unconsolidated materials to collapse

on saturation or wetting. Collapsible materials are often associated with deposits, such as

alluvial fans, terraces, and aeolian soils. If the potential for collapsible soils exists, perform

extensive site investigations and testing to provide quantitative information for design and

construction. Obtain and test undisturbed samples that are representative of the collapsible

material.

Liquefaction Susceptibility

Soil liquefaction typically occurs in recent deposits of loose sand and silty sand located below

the water table; however, gravels and low plasticity silts may also liquefy. Assess

groundwater conditions and the occurrence and extent of potentially liquefiable soils that

could lose strength under the earthquake shaking considered at a site.

28
 DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL SPILLWAYS

 Hydraulics

Design the principal spillway to carry the planned flow for expected headwater and tail water

conditions. Use TR 210-29, “Hydraulics of Two-Way Covered Risers”;

 Risers

Drop inlet principal spillways require risers to maintain the reservoir pool level at or near the

inlet crest elevation during low-flow periods; establish full pipe flow using as low a head

over the crest as practical; and operate without excessive surging, noise, vibration, or vortex

action at any reservoir stage. This requires the riser to have a larger cross-sectional area than

the conduit. NRCS standard covered risers have an inside width equal to the width diameter

(D) of the conduit and an inside length equal to three times the width D of the conduit (D ×

3D cross section).

Use special riser designs for spillways having maximum conduit velocities more than 30 feet

per second and for spillways having conduits larger than 48 inches in width or diameter.

Generally, while like standard risers, these designs require a special elbow and transition at

the junction of the riser and conduit and may require special design of the inlet. Consider

hydraulic model testing if the maximum total head on the spillway is more than 75 feet or the

conduit velocity exceeds 50 feet per second.

 Conduits

The design the conduit is straight in alignment. If required, modify alignment using

watertight angle changes at joints or by special elbows having a radius equal to or greater

than the conduit diameter or width. Provide thrust blocks of adequate strength when using

29
special pipe elbows. Design thrust blocks to distribute the thrust due to change in direction

for the maximum possible discharge. Install drop inlet conduits with enough slope to ensure

free drainage to the outlet of all parts of the conduit (including camber) at the time of

construction and under the maximum anticipated settlement.

All conduits under earth embankments must support the external loads. They must withstand

the internal hydraulic pressures without leakage under full external load and settlement. They

must convey water at the design velocity without damage to the interior surface of the

conduit.

Design principal spillway conduits under earth dams to support fill heights greater than the

original constructed height if there is a reasonable possibility of raising the embankment

height later due to a change in dam classification or to incorporate additional storage for

approved beneficial use.

 Cast-in-place reinforced concrete conduits

Design cast-in-place rectangular reinforced concrete conduits in accordance with principles

and procedures.

 Reinforced concrete pressure pipe conduits

 Conduit diameter

Provide adequate diameter to meet hydraulic requirements, facilitate inspection, cleaning,

repair, and to reduce plugging potential. Use a 36-inch minimum inside diameter for designs

accommodating personnel entry.

Minimum conduit diameters on yielding foundations are as follows:

30
• Low Hazard Potential Dams.—The minimum inside diameter of the principal spillway

conduit is 30 inches, unless a joint extension safety margin of at least 1.5 inches is used, in

which case the minimum diameter is 18 inches for maximum fill heights up to 50 feet at the

centerline of the dam and 24 inches for greater fill heights.

• Significant Hazard Potential Dams.—The minimum inside diameter of the principal

spillway conduit is 30 inches, unless a joint extension safety margin of 1.5 inches is used, in

which case the minimum diameter is 24 inches.

• High Hazard Potential Dams.—The minimum inside diameter of the principal spillway

conduit is 30 inches.

Minimum conduit diameters on nonyielding foundations are as follows:

The minimum inside diameter of the principal spillway conduit for low hazard potential dams

is 18 inches for heights up to 50 feet at the centerline of the dam and 24 inches for heights

greater than 50 feet, and 24 inches for all significant- and high hazard potential dams. The

conduit and cradle or bedding must rest directly on firm bedrock thick enough so that there is

essentially no foundation consolidation under the conduit. Under these conditions, the cradle

or bedding under the conduit does not require articulation.

Consider the potential for hazard potential classification upgrade during the life of the

structure when selecting the conduit diameter.

 Corrugated steel pipe or welded steel pipe conduits

The use corrugated steel or welded steel pipe principal spillway conduits for single-purpose

low hazard potential dams with the product of storage times effective height of dam less than

10,000 acre-ft2.

31
In each case, the following limitations apply:

• Diameter of pipe not less than 18 inches

• Height of fill over the pipe not more than 25 feet

• Provision for replacement if the materials will not last for the design life of the structure

• Pipe structurally strong enough to withstand outside loads and hydraulic pressure

• Pipe watertight

Corrugated steel pipe must be polymer-coated with watertight connecting bands. Design the

minimum gage based on 35 feet of fill over the pipe. Design welded steel pipe conduits as

rigid pipe. When placing joints between lengths of welded steel pipe, provide a joint

extension safety margin of 1.5 inches for conduits on a yielding foundation. Protect welded

steel pipe by an exterior coating or by an exterior coating of coal tar-epoxy paint. Joints

between lengths of corrugated steel or welded steel pipe, other than welded joints, must be

electrically bridged on the outside of the pipe with insulated copper wire, number 6 American

wire gage or larger, securely attached to the uncoated pipe metal at both sides of the joint.

The wire should have a tough, waterproof insulation designed for direct burial, with a rating

of at least 600 volts. Thoroughly coat bare wire and exposed pipe metal at the points of

connection with a coating equivalent to the original pipe coating to prevent the entry of

moisture.

Designs for the use of steel pipe require soil investigations for resistivity and pH of the

subgrade and backfill materials adjacent to the conduit. Measure the resistivity using

saturated samples of soil and backfill materials.

32
  Joints

Conduit joints must be designed and constructed to remain watertight under maximum

anticipated hydrostatic head and maximum probable joint opening. Use a margin of safety of

not less than 0.5 inch.

Trash Racks

Trash racks will be made to provide positive protection against clogging of the spillway

under any operating level. The average velocity of flow through a clean trash rack is not to

exceed 2.5 feet per second under the full range of stage and discharge. Compute velocity

based on the net area of opening through the rack.

If using a low-level reservoir outlet with a trash rack or a ported concrete riser to keep the

sediment pool drained, the trash rack or riser must extend above the anticipated sediment

elevation at the riser to provide for full design flow through the outlet during the design life

of the dam. The velocity through the net area of the trash rack above the maximum sediment

elevation must not exceed 2 feet per second when the water surface in the reservoir is 5 feet

above the top of the trash rack or riser inlet.

trash racks is made on drain outlets to protect against trash that may reduce capacity or

impede gate operation.

Antivortex Devices

All closed-conduit spillways designed for pressure flow must have adequate antivortex

devices.

33
 AUXILIARY SPILLWAYS

Auxiliary spillways convey excess water past a dam.

Closed-Conduit Auxiliary Spillways

Where a design does not include an open channel auxiliary spillway, provide a closed-conduit

auxiliary spillway. Closed spillways must pass the freeboard hydrograph without overtopping

the dam, clogging the riser inlet, or restricting the passage of trash through the conduit elbow.

Closed-conduit spillways must also meet the following requirements:

• For low hazard potential dams with a product of storage times the effective height of the

dam of less than 10,000 acre-ft2, the closed-conduit cross-sectional area must be 12 ft2 or

more in cross sectional area.

• For dams with drainage areas of 10 square miles or less (except those covered above), the

closed-conduit cross-sectional area must be 20 square feet or more.

• For dams with drainage areas greater than 10 square miles must have a minimum

unobstructed cross-sectional area of each opening of the conduit of 40 square feet. Any other

closed-type primary auxiliary spillways must have a minimum unobstructed cross-sectional

area of each opening of 80 square feet. The ratio of width to height in both cases must be

between 0.75 and 1.33.

A closed-conduit auxiliary spillway may also serve a dual purpose as a principal spillway.

34
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

In this project, hydrographs of floods with different return periods was computed using

calibrated hydrological model of the watershed and were considered as the inputs of

simulation–optimization model. To apply the multi-objective optimization model of NSGA-

II, the following parameters were used. The initial population was set to 10000; maximum

number of generations was equal to100; crossover probability = 0.9; and mutation probability

= 1/n (n = number of population size).The simulation optimization model was run by an

initial population (multi-reservoir systems with different heights) and continued to reach

different offspring for attaining the Pareto front solutions. Obtained results showed that the

model is converged before attaining the final offspring.

Investment costs and potential damage costs for the first and the final offspring (Pareto front)

are shown in Fig. 4.1. Each point in this figure represents a multi-reservoir system with

certain height for each reservoir. On the right-hand side of the line with natural status

(without dam), there are some points (multi-reservoir options) that show not only they do not

reduce expected annual flood damage (EAD), but also they intensify the flood damage costs

by synchronizing the floods coming from different tributaries. The presented algorithm

moves toward solutions minimizing the EAD and construction costs in the search space.

As can be seen in Fig.4.1, solutions in the final offspring have less cost than the first

offspring; at the same time, for these solutions, the EAD costs of the basin is also less than

the first offspring. In fact, each solution in Bonny Island is an optimum design having unique

investment cost. Thus, decision makers can assign the optimum design of flood-control multi-

reservoir for each investment cost level. In decision making, one might be interested in

minimum possible number of well representative solutions for further analysis. So it is

35
important that after obtaining many solutions which are true Pareto optimal with wide range,

to reduce the large set of solutions to a few representative solutions. To achieve this point,

various clustering algorithms are available. In the present study, a simple clustering algorithm

based on Euclidian distance was used to reduce the large number of final Pareto solutions to a

few representative solutions. Figure 4.2 shows the final solutions after clustering of Bonny

Island.

Based on results in fig 4.3, there is no need to construct any design 4 and 3 due to low

performance of the dam as shown in this result. On the other hand, dam construction in sub-

basins of Design 1 to 4 can efficiently mitigate the floods in downstream reaches. The effects

of optimal designs of multi reservoirs on reducing the peak of flood with return in years have

been shown.

Design No. 1, that is, the most expensive plan, has the most effects on reducing the peak of

floods and vice versa, Design No. 4 has the lowest. There is a compromise between

investment cost and expected peak flood reduction (expected flood damage cost) to select the

final optimal design. The final optimal design of multi-reservoir system in the basin is

36
selected among the Pareto solutions based on decision criteria. Decision criteria may be

investment level, environmental impacts of various designs, social constraints,

37
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

The initial construction for flood-control multi-reservoir systems in the watershed is

appreciably higher than that of the other flood-control options. The minimization of the

investment costs may be recognized as the principal objectives of design. On the other hand,

the final design of multi-reservoir system should prevent the flood crests from the different

tributaries being synchronized and efficiently mitigate the flood peaks of main rivers in the

watershed.

To attain these goals in this research, an algorithm was presented based on simulation-based

optimization approach. In proposed algorithm, the numerical model was used to calculate the

potential flood damages under the conditions that flood-control multi-reservoirs with

different heights exist in the watershed. Using the numerical model as a simulation model

provides a flexible tool to consider the interaction of the various dams that was analysed

using different height in upstream and downstream of Bonny Island.

Simulation model was coupled with the use python software in which multi-objective

optimization model was used to provide the optimal Pareto solutions between two conflict

objectives of minimizing the investment costs and the potential flood damage costs. The

application of proposed model to a small watershed in Bonny Island that showed optimum

designs obtained by model can efficiently reduce the flood peaks in a wide range from 10 to

80 %in downstream reaches of the basin, depending on the dam height.

For the case study, the location of reservoirs already was determined based on field studies,

but the proposed framework can also be developed to obtain the optimal location of multi-

reservoir system in the watershed just by defining the new variables in optimization model.

38
5.2 Recommendation

Designing a floodwater reservoir to mitigate flooding is a complex and critical task that

requires careful consideration of various factors, including hydrology, topography,

environmental impact, and community needs. Identifying potential sites for the reservoir

based on geographical and hydrological factors. Conducting a geotechnical investigation to

assess soil conditions and determine the feasibility of constructing a reservoir at the chosen

site for Bonny Island are some of the recommendation that will be stated for future research.

5.3 Contribution to Knowledge

i. The study revealed that if unchecked the flooding problems in Bonny Local government in

the future would be a disaster to lives and property

ii. The study also reveals ways to mitigate the spread of flood using both structural and non-

structural measures in Bonny Local Government Area

39
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 APPENDIX A

PYTHON CODE

import cv2import numpy as npdef extract_water_extent(image_path):# Load the aerial

photographimage = cv2.imread(image_path)# Convert the image to HSV color

spacehsv_image = cv2.cvtColor(image, cv2.COLOR_BGR2HSV)# Define the lower and

upper bounds for detecting water in HSV color spacelower_bound = np.array([90, 100,

100])upper_bound = np.array([120, 255, 255])# Threshold the image to get a binary

maskmask = cv2.inRange(hsv_image, lower_bound, upper_bound)# Find contours in the

maskcontours, _ = cv2.findContours(mask,

cv2.RETR_EXTERNAL,cv2.CHAIN_APPROX_SIMPLE)# Calculate the total area of

watertotal_water_area = 0for contour in contours:total_water_area +=

cv2.contourArea(contour)# Calculate the percentage of water area in the

imagetotal_image_area = image.shape[0] * image.shape[1]water_extent_percentage =

(total_water_area / total_image_area) * 100return water_extent_percentageif __name__ ==

"__main__":image_path = "path_to_your_aerial_image.jpg"water_extent_percentage =

extract_water_extent(image_path)print(f"The extent of water in the image is

approximately{water_extent_percentage:.2f}%"

44