1
PHYS1001
Physics 1 REGULAR
Module 2 Thermal Physics
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
CONDUCTION
CONVECTION
RADIATION
ptD_transfer.ppt
Overview of Thermal Physics Module:
1. Thermodynamic Systems:
Work, Heat, Internal Energy
0th, 1st and 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
2. Thermal Expansion
3. Heat Capacity, Latent Heat
4. Methods of Heat Transfer:
Conduction, Convection, Radiation
5. Ideal Gases, Kinetic Theory Model
6. Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy and Disorder
7. Heat Engines, Refrigerators
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
energy transfer (heat, Q)
due to a temperature difference, T
CONDUCTION
CONVECTION
RADIATION
Qnet
17.7 p591
References: University
Physics 12th ed Young &
Freedman
system, T
Environment, TE
European heat wave, 2003 ~35 000 deaths in France
Live sheep trade
Sunday, October 26,
2003
Sheep to shore ... finally
The Labor Opposition will
pursue the Government
over the cost of the "ship
of death" saga, which
ended on Friday when
50,000 Australian sheep
at sea for three months
began being unloading in
Eritrea.
Heat Conduction
Conduction is heat transfer by means of
molecular agitation within a material without
any motion of the material as a whole.
If one end of a metal rod is at a higher
temperature, then energy will be transferred
down the rod toward the colder end because
the higher speed particles will collide with the
slower ones with a net transfer of energy to
the slower ones.
Q
Q
TC
TH
conduction though glass
For conduction between two plane surfaces (eg
heat loss through the wall of a house) the rate of
heat transfer is
steady-state
Q
T TC
kA H
t
L
TC
TH
energy
transferred
through
slab
Q
dQ
dT
k A
dt
dx
Q
Thermal conductivity k (W.m-1.K-1)
L
heat current H = dQ/dt
Thermal Conduction through a uniform slab
steady-state
Q
T TC
kA H
t
L
dQ
dT
k A
dt
dx
TH
TC
temperature gradient
x
dT
dx
Material
diamond
Thermal conductivity
k (W.m-1.K-1)
2450
Cu
385
Al
205
Brick
0.2
Glass
0.8
Body fat
0.2
Water
0.6
Wood
0.2
Styrofoam
0.01
Air
0.024
Thermal conductivity, k
property of the material
kdiamond very high: perfect heat
sink, e.g. for high power laser
diodes
khuman low: core temp relatively
constant (37 oC)
kair very low: good insulator
* home insulation
* woolen clothing
* windows double glazing
Metals good conductors:
electrons transfer energy from hot
to cold
Heat Convection
Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as
air or water when the heated fluid is caused to move away
from the source of heat, carrying energy with it.
Convection above a hot surface occurs because hot air
expands, becomes less dense and rises (natural or free).
Convection assisted by breeze, pump or fan forced
convection.
Hot water is likewise less dense than cold water and rises,
causing convection currents which transport energy.
dQ
~ h A (T2 T1 )
dt
Convection coefficient, h
T between surface and air way from surface
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[Link]
11
Sea & Land Breezes, Monsoons
35 oC
20 oC
11 oC
17 oC
What is the role of
heat capacity, c of water and soil?
[Link]
RADIATION
Energy transferred by electromagnetic waves
All materials radiate thermal energy in
amounts determined by their
temperature, where the energy is carried
by photons of light in the infrared and
visible portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Thermal radiation wavelength ranges:
IR
~ 100 - 0. 8 m
Visible ~ 0.8 - 0.4 m 800 400 nm
UV
~0.4 - 0.1 m
For exam: more detail than in the textbook
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Ludwig Boltzmann
(1844-1906)
All objects above absolute zero
emit radiant energy and the rate
of emission increases and the
peak wavelength decreases as
the temperature of object
increases
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Thermography
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Absorption & Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Incident radiation (INTENSITY I - energy
passing through a square metre every
second
Iinc = P / A Iabs = a Iinc
Power absorbed by surface of an object
Qabs
dQabs
Pabs
Aa Ts 4
dt
Surface Area, A
Absorption coefficient, a = 0 to 1
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x
-8
-2
-4
10 W.m .K
A, a
Ts
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Emission & Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Power radiated from the surface of an object
dQrad
Prad
Ae T 4
dt
A, e, T
Surface Area, A
Emissivity, e = 0 to 1
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 W.m-2.K-4
Pnet Prad Pabs
Pnet > 0 net heat transfer out of system
Qrad
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A blackbody absorbs all the radiation incident upon it and
emits the max possible radiation at all wavelengths
(e = a = 1)
A graybody is a surface that absorbs a certain proportion of
the energy of a blackbody, the constant being constant over
the entire band of wavelengths
(0 e = a < 1)
emissivity e
absorption coefficient (absorptivity) a
Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6710-8 W.m-2.K-4
Stefan-Boltzmann constant, = 5.67 x 10-8 W.m-2.K-4
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
emissivity, e = 0 to 1 Blackbody, e = 1
Absorption coefficient, a = 0 to 1
At a temperature T a = e all wavelengths
T > 700 oC visible radiation (dull red ~ 800 oC
white ~ 2000 oC)
Black surface (e ~ 1) good emitter / absorber
Polished surface (e ~ 0.01)
poor emitter / absorber, good reflector
Hot stars blue
Cool stars - red
Water (e ~ 0.96)
Earth (e ~ 0.3)
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Problem D.4
Semester 1, 2007 Examination
An igloo is a hemispherical enclosure built of ice. Elmos igloo has an inner
radius of 2.55 mm and the thickness of the ice is 0.30 m. This thickness
can be considered small compared to the radius. Heat leaks out of the
igloo at a rate determined by the thermal conductivity of ice,
kice = 1.67 W.m-1.K-1.
At what rate must thermal energy be generated inside the igloo to maintain
a steady air temperature inside the igloo at 6.5 oC when the outside
temperture is -40 oC?
Ignore all thermal energy losses by conduction through the ground, or any
heat transfer by radiation or convection or leaks.
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Solution
Identify / Setup
thickness t = 0.30 m
-40 oC
6.5 C
o
kice = 1.67 W.m-1.K-1
radius r = 2.55 m
The rate of energy production must be equal to the rate of
loss of thermal energy by conduction through the
hemispherical ice wall.
Rate of energy transfer by conduction
dQ
dT
k A
dt
dx
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dQ/dt = ? W
k = 1.67 W.m-1.K-1
dT = {6.5 ( 40)} oC = 46.5 oC
thickness of ice, dx = 0.30 m
area, A = surface area of hemisphere = (4 R2) / 2 = 2 R2
Because the thickness of the ice is much smaller than either the inside or outside
radius, it does not matter which radius is used taking the average radius
R = (2.55 + 0.15) m = 2.70 m
Execute
dQ
dT
k A
dt
dx
dQ/dt = (1.67)(2)(2.70)2(46.5)/0.30 W
dQ/dt = 1.2 104 W
Evaluate
sensible value
units
significant figures
did I answer the question ?
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Problem D.5
Suppose a human could live for 120 min unclothed
in air at 8 oC.
How long could they live in water at 8 oC?
Problem D.5
Suppose a human could live for 120 min unclothed in air at 8 oC. How
long could they live in water at 8 oC?
Solution
Identify / Setup
Thermal conductivities kair = 0.024 W.m-1.K-1 kwater = 0.6 W.m -1.K-1
Execute
Q
T
k A
t
x
tW k A
t A kW
Q
T
kW A
tW
x
&
Q
T
k A A
t A
x
k A
0.024
(120)
min 4.8 min
0.6
kW
tW t A
Evaluate
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Problem D.6
Why do droplets of water dance over the very hot pan ?
[Link]
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Why do droplets of
water dance over
the very hot pan ?
Water at the bottom of the drops is evaporated and
provides insulation against further evaporation.
[Link]
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Problem D.7
An aluminium pot contains water that is kept steadily boiling (100 C). The
bottom surface of the pot, which is 12 mm thick and 1.5104 mm2 in area,
is maintained at a temperature of 102 C by an electric heating unit. Find
the rate at which heat is transferred through the bottom surface. Compare
this with a copper based pot. The thermal conductivities for aluminium and
copper are
kAl = 235 W.m-1.K-1
and
kCu = 401 W.m-1.K-1
Solution
Identify / Setup
Base area
A = 1.5x104 mm2
= 1.5x10-2 m2
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TC = 100 oC
dQ
dT
k A
dt
dx
TH = 102 oC
Base thickness
L = 12 mm = 12x10-3 m
kAl = 235 W.m-1.K-1
Execute
kCu = 401 W.m-1.K-1
Al, dQ/dt = 5.9x102 W
dT/dx = (TH TC) / L
Cu, dQ/dt = 1.0x103 W
dQ/dt = ? W
Cu pots ~ 2 times more efficient
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Body Heat
convection
Heat lost by
is very important for
humans
For a naked person, h ~ 7.1 W.m-2.K-1
Assume the persons surface area is 1.5 m 2, skin
temperature of 33 oC and surrounding temperature 29 oC.
A = 1.5 m2
T = 33 oC
TE = 29 oC
dQ/dtconvection = h A T = (7.1)(1.5)(4) W = 43 W
If there is a breeze, convection losses are greater wind
chill factor
Viscosity of fluids slows natural convection near a stationary surface by producing
a boundary layer which has about the same insulating values of 10 mm plywood.
For the naked person, estimate the net rate of energy
radiated.
= 1.5 m2 T = 33 oC = (33 + 273) K = 306 K
TE = (29 + 273) K = 302 K
assume e = 1 = 5.67x10-8 W.m-2.K-4
Pradiation = e A (T 4 TE4) = 39 W
dQ/dtloss = dQ/dtradiation + dQ/dtconvection = 39 W + 43 W = 82 W
Ans. similar to the rate at which heat is generated by the
body when resting
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CONVECTION
Why not heat the
water at the top?
[Link]
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CONVECTION
Forced convection
Warm air rises above the
ground
[Link]
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CONVECTION
Why do we get this
pollution haze?
Temperature inversion
prevents air rising and the
dispersing the pollution
[Link]
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CONVECTION
In bathrooms, the
heater is often near
the ceiling. Problem ?
[Link]
Why are the cooling
coils at the top ?
