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William Thornton · Frederick Bonato

The Human
Body and
Weightlessness
Operational Effects, Problems and
Countermeasures
The Human Body and Weightlessness
William Thornton • Frederick Bonato

The Human Body

and Weightlessness
Operational Effects, Problems
and Countermeasures
William Thornton Frederick Bonato
University of Texas Medical Branch Saint Peter’s University
Galveston, Texas, USA Jersey City, New Jersey, USA

ISBN 978-3-319-32828-7    ISBN 978-3-319-32829-4 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32829-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017942723

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to Dr. Tom Moore
whose unstinting and too often unrecognized
work in the early Shuttle flights
produced a number of the results described
here.
Preface and Acknowledgements

The intent of this work is to provide a better understanding of one of the more chal-
lenging problems of current and future space operations—the reaction of the human
body to a fundamental feature of the environment beyond that of Earth: weightless-
ness. This book was initially intended to be a small, readily accessible source of
information and data on the major operational problems caused by adaptation to
weightlessness. It was to be as simple as possible and comprehensible to virtually
all those working in human space flight but who are not necessarily familiar with
some relevant details, especially of the human body.
On beginning the chapter on space motion sickness, it became obvious that pub-
lished studies and data were too diverse to be adequate for operational planning, the
ultimate goal of this writing. This changed the planned format from a collation of
existing studies and data to one that required the generation of applicable evidence-
based information on the causes and effects of changes produced by weightlessness
and a search for data on these changes. Validity and relevance were the criteria used
in the selection of evidence, whether dating from before space flight or just discov-
ered during the writing itself.
The resulting product is based on the concept that the human body can make
physiological changes or temporary adaptations, which are compatible with weight-
lessness and a healthy body. These “somatic” adaptations are usually incompatible
with normal function in 1 g and must be considered during and after return to Earth
until re-adaptation has occurred. With one known exception, this is not a pathologi-
cal process. Such a concept is in contrast to that of many investigators and physi-
cians who treat these changes as pathologies to be prevented if possible.
A rational basis for the approach taken here is found in the evolution of our
marine ancestors’ bodies into our present form and function by innumerable species
adaptations. In almost every case of somatic adaptation we took a biophysical
approach, which began with the simplest functional unit in the systems involved;
e.g., the hair cell’s relationship to space motion sickness. Only those features
directly relevant to the problem are considered. Basic science is included when
deemed appropriate to provide a common basis for understanding of these
adaptations.

vii
viii Preface and Acknowledgements

It is written with the hope that the concepts here will be challenged where necessary
and augmented and extended as additional experience allows. This is especially true
in the case of the incomplete data in this book. The book could not have been done
without the support of many people, a number of whom may have been inadvertently
missed in the following list of acknowledgements and appreciation. The book began
with the authorization and support of Michael Coats, then director of NASA
JSC. Other essential contributions by people and organizations in JSC include the
art and graphics skill of David Russell who painstakingly translated ideas, images,
and data into the colorful graphics, which speak for themselves. Janine Bolton and
Kim So of the Life Sciences library patiently supported our search for information
and provided hundreds of files and sources. Mary Wilkerson in the photo archives
continued her gracious tradition of skillful searches for and provision of photographic
files. Some of the most valuable insights were provided by astronauts current and
past and by Alan Moore and Mark Guilliam of Wyle.
This work would have been absolutely impossible without the varied and
unstinting support of Sid Jones (retired) whose 38 years’ experience in graphic and
editorial work as a support contractor at JSC will survive indefinitely in many JSC
publications.
Typing sometimes almost illegible scripts by Kathy Hernandez of a San Antonio
firm has been an essential element here. My innumerable revisions were a burden to
all involved.
Many basics in the work described here began with the support of General Jack
Ord and by Brooks Air Force Base machine shop and were continued by the late
Henry Whitmore and Whitmore enterprises. Bruce Del Mar and Del Mar Avionics
contributed unique prototype hardware.
Drs. Tom Moore and John Uri at JSC provided essential support in execution,
both on the ground and in-flight investigations and their documentation. Chapters
on Space Motion Sickness (SMS), aspects of fluid shifts and exercise, would not
have been possible without the observations and measurements of crews on STS-2
through STS-61B. Dr. Norm Thagard’s clinical observations and electrophysiological
recordings on STS-7 and STS-8’s crew support, especially that of Cdr. Dick Truly,
were crucial to the ultimate understanding of SMS. Story Musgrave’s compliance
measurements on later missions confirmed key portions of Chap. 4. Many other
insightful crew observations are too numerous to credit.
Writing of this book was dependent on the moral, typing, and sustenance support
of my wife Jennifer.

Fair Oaks Ranch, Texas, USA William E. Thornton

Contents

1 An Introduction to Weightlessness and Its

Effects on Humans..................................................................................    1
1.1 Introduction......................................................................................   1
1.2 Background......................................................................................   1
1.3 Weight and Weightlessness..............................................................   5
1.4 Weightlessness During Spaceflight..................................................   8
1.5 Brief History of Major Effects of Weightlessness...........................  11
1.6 Space Motion Sickness....................................................................  12
1.7 Fluid Shifts and Losses....................................................................  13
1.8 Musculoskeletal Effects...................................................................  14
1.9 Cardiopulmonary Effects.................................................................  14
1.10 Metabolic Effects.............................................................................  15
1.11 Neuromuscular Adaptation..............................................................  15
1.12 Effects of Accommodation..............................................................  16
1.13 Anthropometric Accommodations...................................................  16
1.14 Postural Change...............................................................................  16
1.15 Other Changes..................................................................................  16
1.16 Summary of Effects..........................................................................  17
Additional Background.............................................................................   18
References.................................................................................................   19
2 Basic Mechanisms...................................................................................   21
2.1 Introduction......................................................................................  21
2.2 Species Adaptation...........................................................................  23
2.3 Somatic Adaptation..........................................................................  24
References.................................................................................................   30
3 Space Motion Sickness and Vestibular Adaptation
to Weightlessness.....................................................................................   31
3.1 Introduction......................................................................................  31
3.2 Brief History....................................................................................  32
3.3 Background......................................................................................  33

ix
x Contents

3.4 The Vestibular System and Orientation............................................  36

3.5 Vestibular Sensor Function and Malfunction...................................  37
3.6 Sensory Conflict...............................................................................  40
3.7 The Emesis (Vomiting) Center in SMS............................................  41
3.8 Other Inhibitions in SMS.................................................................  43
3.9 MS in SMS.......................................................................................  44
3.10 Vestibular Angular Motion Sensors, on Earth and in Orbit.............  44
3.11 The Emesis (Vomiting) System in MS and SMS.............................  44
3.12 MS and SMS in Spaceflight.............................................................  45
3.13 Vestibular Adaptation and Resolution of SMS.................................  46
3.14 Other Vestibular Effects and Adaptations Inflight............................  47
3.15 Effects of Vestibular Adaptation to Weightlessness
on Return to Earth............................................................................  48
3.16 Variability.........................................................................................  49
3.17 Countermeasures, Simulations and Medication...............................  49
3.18 Re-adaptation to 1 g.........................................................................  51
3.19 Operational Considerations..............................................................  51
3.20 Summary, Present and Future..........................................................  52
Glossary....................................................................................................   53
References.................................................................................................   54
4 Fluid Shifts and Loss..............................................................................   57
4.1 Introduction......................................................................................  57
4.2 Brief History....................................................................................  59
4.3 Background......................................................................................  61
4.3.1 Circulatory Essentials...........................................................  62
4.3.2 Circulatory Control Systems................................................  68
4.3.3 Examples of the Systems that Control Blood Volume
and Pressures........................................................................  69
4.3.4 The Human Cardiovascular System on Earth......................  76
4.3.5 Fluid Shifts in Weightlessness..............................................  79
4.3.6 Volume Changes...................................................................  81
4.3.7 Cardiovascular Changes.......................................................  82
4.3.8 Rationale for Fluid Shift and Loss.......................................  83
4.3.9 Reentry and Egress...............................................................  84
4.4 Countermeasures..............................................................................  85
4.4.1 Control of Fluid Volume.......................................................  85
4.4.2 Control of leg Volume..........................................................  86
4.4.3 An Improved Countermeasure.............................................  87
4.4.4 Compensation for Reduced Gain of Control Loops.............  88
4.4.5 Physical Rehabilitation.........................................................  88
4.4.6 Incidence of Orthostatic Intolerance....................................  88
4.5 Weightlessness Simulations in 1 g...................................................  90
4.5.1 Water Immersion..................................................................  91
4.5.2 Bed Rest in Horizontal Position...........................................  91
4.5.3 Bed Rest with Head Down Tilting.......................................  91
Contents xi

4.5.4 Weightlessness in Zero-g Aircraft........................................  92

4.5.5 Hind Limb Unloading in Rats..............................................  92
4.5.6 Simulation Versus Flight Results.........................................  93
4.5.7 Summary of Fluid Shifts, Effects
and Countermeasures...........................................................  93
4.6 The Future........................................................................................  94
References.................................................................................................   96
5 Cephalic Fluid Dynamics and Ocular Changes
in Weightlessness.....................................................................................   99
5.1 Introduction......................................................................................  99
5.2 Brief History.................................................................................... 101
5.3 Background...................................................................................... 103
5.3.1 The Traditional Lymphatic System...................................... 107
5.3.2 One-g Phenomena Relevant to MOS................................... 109
5.4 One-g Technology............................................................................ 109
5.4.1 In-flight Changes and MOS ................................................ 110
5.4.2 Cause of MOS...................................................................... 113
5.5 Evidence Based CSF Flow............................................................... 113
5.5.1 CSF Flow and Lymphatic Drainage in MOS....................... 114
5.5.2 Summary of Current Status of MOS.................................... 117
Glossary....................................................................................................  117
References.................................................................................................  119
6 Loss of Muscle and Bone During Spaceflight.......................................  121
6.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 121
6.2 Brief History.................................................................................... 124
6.3 Background...................................................................................... 126
6.3.1 Nature of Adaptations of the Musculoskeletal System........ 127
6.4 Muscle.............................................................................................. 132
6.4.1 Motion.................................................................................. 132
6.4.2 Force..................................................................................... 133
6.4.3 Muscle Fibers....................................................................... 134
6.5 Bone................................................................................................. 137
6.5.1 Human Skeletal Bones......................................................... 140
6.5.2 Bone and Muscle Unity........................................................ 141
6.6 Biomechanics of Force..................................................................... 143
6.6.1 Measurements in Muscle and Bone Evaluation................... 145
6.6.2 Measurement of Muscle Function........................................ 145
6.6.3 Measurement of bone function............................................. 146
6.6.4 Measurement Interpretation and Application....................... 147
6.6.5 Musculoskeletal System on Earth........................................ 150
6.6.6 Walking, Jogging and Running............................................ 150
6.6.7 Cycling................................................................................. 152
6.6.8 Weight Lifting and Resistance Exercises............................. 153
6.6.9 Bone Adaptation................................................................... 154
6.6.10 Muscle in Spinal Cord Injuries............................................ 155
xii Contents

6.6.11 Bone Loss in Spinal Cord Injuries....................................... 157

6.6.12 Simulations of Weightlessness and Disuse Atrophy............ 158
6.7 Changes in Muscle and Bone with Bed Rest................................... 158
6.7.1 Muscle Changes During Bed Rest....................................... 160
6.7.2 Bone Changes with Bed Rest............................................... 162
6.7.3 Effects of Spaceflight on Muscle and Bone......................... 165
6.7.4 Effects of Spaceflight on Muscle......................................... 166
6.7.5 Flight Effects on Bone.......................................................... 168
6.8 Recent Data...................................................................................... 170
6.9 Summary of Flight Effects............................................................... 173
6.9.1 Muscle and Bone in Space; Past, Present and Future.......... 174
References.................................................................................................  174
7 Countermeasures to Loss of Muscle and Bone
During Spaceflight..................................................................................  177
7.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 177
7.1.1 History.................................................................................. 180
7.2 Background...................................................................................... 183
7.2.1 Countermeasure Forces and Force/Motion Relations.......... 187
7.2.2 Countermeasure Hardware................................................... 192
7.2.3 Upper Body Devices............................................................ 192
7.2.4 Countermeasures in Bed Rest and 1 g.................................. 199
7.2.5 Countermeasures in Bed Rest.............................................. 199
7.2.6 Countermeasure Device Evaluation in 1 g........................... 201
7.3 Counter Measures in Spaceflight..................................................... 202
7.3.1 Procedures and Problems..................................................... 202
7.3.2 Countermeasures in Flight................................................... 203
7.4 Recovery of Muscle and Bone Loss................................................. 212
7.4.1 Bedrest (BR)......................................................................... 212
7.5 Summary of Loss of Muscle and Bone in Spaceflight..................... 216
7.5.1 The Future............................................................................ 219
References.................................................................................................  219
8 Loss of Aerobic Capacity During Weightlessness................................  223
8.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 223
8.2 Brief History.................................................................................... 225
8.3 Background...................................................................................... 227
8.3.1 Muscle (Fig. 8.2a)................................................................ 228
8.3.2 Vascular System (Fig. 8.2b)................................................. 228
8.3.3 Lungs (Fig. 8.2c).................................................................. 230
8.3.4 Heart (Fig. 8.2d)................................................................... 232
8.3.5 Controls (Fig. 8.2e).............................................................. 232
8.3.6 Measurement of Aerobic Fitness......................................... 233
8.3.7 Aerobic Fitness in 1 g.......................................................... 237
8.3.8 Effects of Bed Rest on Aerobic Fitness............................... 239
8.4 Changes of Aerobic Fitness in Spaceflight...................................... 242
8.4.1 Loss of Aerobic Capacity and Its Measurement.................. 243
Contents xiii

8.5 Countermeasures.............................................................................. 247

8.6 Protocols for and Usage of Aerobic Countermeasures
in NASA Space Programs................................................................ 248
8.7 Summary.......................................................................................... 249
8.7.1 Aerobics on the Moon and Beyond...................................... 249
8.7.2 Earth to Mars Flight and Return........................................... 250
Glossary....................................................................................................  251
References.................................................................................................  252
9 Neuromuscular Inhibition......................................................................  255
9.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 255
9.2 History.............................................................................................. 256
9.3 Background...................................................................................... 257
9.4 One-g Effects................................................................................... 260
9.5 Summary.......................................................................................... 265
References.................................................................................................  266
10 Loss of Body Mass During Weightlessness...........................................  267
10.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 268
10.2 Brief History.................................................................................. 269
10.3 Background.................................................................................... 270
10.3.1 Energetics........................................................................... 271
10.3.2 Food and Drink.................................................................. 272
10.3.3 Body Mass Measurement................................................... 273
10.4 Mass Measurement in Weightlessness........................................... 275
10.4.1 Space Food Systems.......................................................... 276
10.5 Loss and Gain of Mass................................................................... 279
10.5.1 Loss and Gain in 1 g.......................................................... 279
10.5.2 In Bed Rest......................................................................... 279
10.5.3 In Space Flight................................................................... 279
10.5.4 Waste Collection Systems.................................................. 287
10.6 Future............................................................................................. 290
10.6.1 Future Food Concerns........................................................ 290
10.6.2 Summary of Weight Loss in Space.................................... 291
References..................................................................................................  292
11 Accommodations to Weightlessness......................................................  293
11.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 293
11.2 Changes in Height.......................................................................... 294
11.2.1 Bed Rest Studies................................................................ 297
11.2.2 Inflight................................................................................ 298
11.2.3 Posture in Weightlessness.................................................. 301
11.3 Back Pain....................................................................................... 304
11.4 Summary........................................................................................ 304
References..................................................................................................  305

Index.................................................................................................................  307
Introduction

This book differs from other literature on the subject in a number of ways.1 It is
devoted to a single subject, effects of weightlessness on humans, but it is sharply
restricted to changes that significantly affect subjects and their operational capacity
in space or on return to Earth. Conversely all of the major or significant effects are
treated but in an individual and focused manner. It is not intended only for specialists
in space medicine. Instead we attempted to make the material useful and
comprehensible to as many as possible of those with an interest in space operations.
This required several considerations.
Problems in understanding specialized language are encountered immediately.
Few individuals outside medicine could locate their levator ani with certainty, and
there are some professionals equally unfamiliar with a pilot’s pucker muscle. Where
practical, specialist terms are accompanied by a more common term. Glossaries
have been added at the end of some chapters, versus the end of the book, to facilitate
access to translation of unfamiliar terms. The danger in this is a mixture, which
satisfies only a few.
The nomenclature used to identify the Skylab missions often causes confusion.
Here, as in many publications, Skylab (SL) indicates the vehicle or the program in
general. Skylab 1 refers to the unmanned launch of the Skylab vehicle, Skylab 2 the
first manned mission, Skylab 3 the second manned mission, and Skylab 4 the third
and final manned mission. They are identified with the abbreviations SL-2, SL-3,
and SL-4 to indicate the information is mission specific.
There is always the danger of mystification, of leaving it to the experts, when
complexities are encountered, especially in the human body. These complexities
usually become understandable when reduced to their basics; hence sections in the
basic sciences are an integral part of this work.
For those used to reviews that include as many alternative views of a phenomenon
as possible, much of this may seem simplistic. Simplicity based on demonstrable
fact or function has been a goal here. Wherever possible this has been augmented by
color-coded diagrams.

1
Unless something new or different can be offered there seems to be little point in writing.

xv
xvi Introduction

Emphasis and interest in the various aspects of weightlessness has been shifted by
operational changes over the more than half decade taken to produce this book.
Initially a major portion of operation was focused on the Shuttle, which was employed
primarily in its namesake role of shuttling crews, equipment, and material to and
from the International Space Station (ISS). The majority of the crews involved were
on short flights and short-term phenomena, such as space motion sickness (SMS) and
fluid shifts, affected crew time significantly. By the end of the Shuttle program a few
astronauts had begun to spend longer periods of time in flight—months and up to a
year instead of days and weeks. This shifted the primary concerns to the musculo-
skeletal and metabolic systems. In the course of these in-flight times, the frequently
seen shifts to far vision on orbit did not resolve on return to Earth and 1 g in a few
individuals and permanent changes were found in their eyes.
Chapter 1 is dedicated to weight and weightlessness and Chap. 2 to adaptation.
The nine following chapters cover a particular aspect of somatic (rapid and reversible)
adaptation.
Where possible chapters are organized as follows:
• A brief description of the problem in spaceflight
• Generic history of the problem with some detail of its history in flight
• A background to the causes of change is given in the most basic elemental terms
• Experience in 1 g relevant to the problem
• Results of 1-g simulation of the problem
• Flight experience with the problem including countermeasures
Chapter 5 developed as the problems with eyes and vision were disclosed late in
the evolution of the book. This is the first example of a stress that exceeds the limits
of reversible adaptation and produces permanent pathological changes. It is probably
indirectly related to weightlessness.
While all the concepts are based on the most solid evidence available, each has
been or may be verified by experiment. For example in SMS it should be a relatively
simple matter for someone skilled in micromanipulation to remove the otoliths’
weight and reproduce the effects seen in weightlessness.
There is a paucity or absence of much needed data in numerous areas in spite of
vigorous pursuit of any valid source. More or less coincidental with the end of
Shuttle, improvements in ISS onboard equipment and its use were made. Some
flight data have become more accessible. There are some reports of improvement in
countermeasure results, but these seem to be exceptional.
In spite of such shortcomings, the material in the book should provide a basis for the
increasing knowledge and its practical application of the effects of weightlessness
on the human body.
Acronyms and Abbreviations

AO Astronaut Office
ARC Ames Research Center
ARED Advanced Resistive Exercise Device
ASTP Apollo Soyuz Test Project
BDA Bone Density Absorption
BMD Body Mineral Density
BMMD Body Mass Measuring Device
BR Bed Rest
BV Blood Volume
BW Body Weight
BWF Body Weight Force
Ca Calcium
CDR Commander
CEVIS Cycle Ergometer with Vibration Isolation System
cm Centimeter
cmH2O Centimeters of water
CNS Central Nervous System
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CR Cardiorespiratory
CSA Cross Sectional Area
CSF Cerebrospinal Fluid
CTZ Chemoreceptor trigger zone or chemical trigger zone
CVS Cardiovascular System
DEXA Dual Energy X-ray Absorptionometry
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DSO Detailed Supplementary Objective
DXA Dichromatic X-Ray Absorptiometry (radiology)
EKG Electrocardiogram
ESA European Space Agency
EVA Extravehicular Activity
F Force

xvii
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